From: Subject: NEJM -- Seeking God in the Brain -- Efforts to Localize Higher Brain Functions Date: Sat, 19 Jan 2008 10:00:45 +0100 MIME-Version: 1.0 Content-Type: multipart/related; type="text/html"; boundary="----=_NextPart_000_0008_01C85A82.289DFCF0" X-MimeOLE: Produced By Microsoft MimeOLE V6.00.2900.3198 This is a multi-part message in MIME format. ------=_NextPart_000_0008_01C85A82.289DFCF0 Content-Type: text/html; charset="iso-8859-1" Content-Transfer-Encoding: quoted-printable Content-Location: http://content.nejm.org/cgi/content/full/358/1/6 NEJM -- Seeking God in the Brain -- Efforts to = Localize Higher Brain Functions
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Volume = 358:6-7 3D" January 3, 2008 3D" Number=20 1
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Seeking=20 God in the Brain =97 Efforts to Localize Higher Brain=20 Functions
Solomon H. Snyder, M.D., D.Sc. =

 
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Neuroscientists=20 have long eschewed global questions about brain function, and = books=20 reviewing the current state of neuroscience usually allocate = only a=20 small section to "higher functions." But with the advent of = novel=20 imaging techniques such as positron-emission tomographic = scanning and=20 functional magnetic resonance imaging, attitudes have begun = to=20 change. It is now feasible to visualize functions of discrete = brain=20 regions while subjects are engaged in diverse activities =97 = doing=20 arithmetic, composing songs, writing poetry, or watching = pornographic=20 movies. Information about which parts of the brain are = activated=20 during various mental activities has supplemented and, in = general,=20 confirmed previous insights derived from observations of = alterations=20 of thinking and feeling associated with brain lesions, = epilepsy,=20 and the use of diverse drugs.

Efforts to elucidate higher brain functions have intersected = with=20 a burgeoning literature on the neural underpinnings of not = only=20 language and art but also religion. At one extreme, some = scientists,=20 such as Francis Collins, in The Language of God, have = even=20 used what we know of molecular biology and brain function to = argue=20 for the existence of a personal God.1= =20 Collins reviews anthropologic data emphasizing the = universality of=20 the search for God among a diverse group of primitive and=20 advanced cultures over many thousands of years; he interprets = this=20 universality as implying that some basic structure in the = brain=20 "needs God." Similarly, noting that humans have an intuitive = sense of=20 right and wrong, Collins suggests that this characteristic, = too,=20 originates in an intrinsic structure of the brain. He goes so = far as=20 to conclude that the moral law was implanted in our brains by = God, but many scientists have argued, from the same=20 universality, that moral, altruistic behavior is programmed = into the=20 brain because it facilitates social behavior that leads to = the=20 preservation of the species.

Others have used similar data to argue that all of religion = is an=20 artifact of evolution. Neuroscientist David Linden, for = instance, has=20 recently suggested specific mechanisms whereby evolutionary=20 alterations in the structure of the brain might account for = the=20 development of religion as well as love, memory, and = dreams.2= As=20 the brain evolved, he explains, the overgrown cerebral cortex = came to=20 overlie the more primitive, emotion-regulating limbic = structures,=20 which in turn surmount the most primitive brain-stem = structures and=20 the associated hypothalamus. Linden argues that the = accidental=20 linking of these portions of the brain accounts for many of = the=20 tribulations of humankind =97 anxiety and other emotional = disturbances=20 arise in substantial part from the ongoing war between the = "rational"=20 higher centers and the emotion-laden limbic system. Linden = argues=20 that if an "intelligent designer" had assembled the brain, it = would=20 surely have done an elegant, impeccable job, but the more we=20 learn about the brain, the more clearly we see that it is an = ad=20 hoc concatenation of structures designed for unrelated = functions=20 =97 a sort of Rube Goldberg contraption. Though the brain = somehow=20 manages to function rather elegantly, breakdowns manifested = in=20 emotional and other disturbances are all too frequent.

Linden speculates about the neural mechanisms that may underlie=20 religious impulses. He regards religious ideation as = reflecting=20 beliefs =97 such as the concept of a virgin birth or the = notion=20 of a God who knows every thought of every human being =97 = that violate=20 our everyday perception of reality. He likens such = conceptualizations=20 to the confabulations that persons with split brains arrive = at in=20 order to make sense of the incompatible data encountered by = the two=20 separated hemispheres.

In his recent book The Soul in the Brain, British = neurologist=20 Michael Trimble looks to his area of expertise, epilepsy, to=20 explore a possible relationship between the human brain and=20 religion: religiosity, he notes, is often brought to the fore = by seizures.3= =20 Trimble points out that some of the greatest religious = figures in=20 history had what were probably complex partial seizures, = which are=20 known to be associated with religious ideation. For instance, = during=20 Saint Paul's conversion on the road to Damascus, he is said = not only=20 to have suffered 3 days of blindness but also to have fallen = to the=20 ground frequently and experienced ecstatic visions. Muhammad=20 described falling episodes accompanied by visual and auditory = hallucinations. Joseph Smith, who founded Mormonism, reported = lapses=20 of consciousness and speech arrest, noting that "When I came = to . . .=20 I found myself lying on my back looking up at heaven." Joan = of Arc=20 reported, "I heard this voice [of an angel] . . .=20 accompanied also by a great light."3= =20

Trimble recalls that in The Varieties of Religious = Experience,=20 the 19th-century psychologist William James also highlighted=20 the trances, visions, and auditory hallucinations associated=20 with religion, emphasizing the ineffable, altered state of=20 consciousness of most religious mystics. Such mystical = states,=20 encountered in most religions, remarks Trimble, are = extraordinarily=20 similar to the mental states elicited by psychedelic drugs = such as=20 LSD and mescaline. Almost 50 years ago, the psychiatrist = Walter=20 Pahnke came to this conclusion on the basis of experiments in = which the psychedelic drug psilocybin was administered to = students=20 at the Harvard Divinity School. More recently, Roland = Griffiths=20 and colleagues have replicated these studies in a more = rigorous=20 fashion and found that subjects receiving psilocybin reported = long-lasting changes in a religious sense of self.4= =20 Drugs whose mechanism of action is understood can be powerful = tools=20 for elucidating the molecular basis of mental states =97 = we=20 know much more about the neurotransmitters that mediate = emotions,=20 for instance, from studying the actions of antidepressant = drugs=20 than from direct manipulations of the brain =97 and = psychedelic=20 drugs are known to act as agonists of one subtype of = serotonin=20 receptors.4= =20 Since serotonin neurons arise from a discrete set of raphe = nuclei in=20 the brain, it may be possible to narrow the search for the = biologic=20 cause of at least one type of religiosity to these few = cells.=20

But given the variability of what we mean by "religion" and=20 "poetry," attempts to localize such purported functions = within=20 the brain are always fraught with hazards. With his focus on=20 epileptic causes of both religious and creative impulses, = Trimble=20 enumerates several candidate regions, most of them in the = temporal=20 lobe =97 an area that receives a substantial input from = serotonin=20 neurons =97 which is consistent with what we know of sites of = action of=20 psychedelic drugs. In this issue of the Journal, Sanai = and=20 colleagues (pages 18=9627) report on a study in which they = mapped sites=20 involved in diverse modes of language use in patients with = gliomas=20 who were undergoing debulking of their tumors. They found a = far wider=20 dispersal than might have been expected, with parietal and = temporal=20 as well as frontal regions providing important contributions. = However, any extrapolation from a mapping of brain areas that = mediate language use to likely cerebral contributions to = religious=20 or creative dispositions would be highly speculative. =

So where do all these brain explorations lead us? In seeking = a=20 general relationship between religious states, poetry, and = music,=20 Trimble ascribes all three to the right, nondominant side of = the=20 brain. He assumes that integration of the activity of the = right-sided=20 emotional brain with that of the left-sided analytic brain = gives rise=20 to the greatest intellectual achievements in the arts. I = suspect that=20 major advances in science, too, are the product of more than = pure=20 reason =97 in the finest scientists I have encountered, I = have always=20 detected a notable creative, artistic flair.5= =20 Artistic, intuitive approaches are evident even in the most = abstract=20 intellectual achievements, such as Einstein's theories. = Needless to=20 say, a simple dichotomy of right and left brains is a gross=20 oversimplification. Nonetheless, as imaging technology and = associated=20 cognitive testing become ever more sophisticated, we may be = able to=20 discriminate ways in which religious and creative = sensibilities=20 relate to one another and to brain areas that mediate = emotions that=20 are deranged in psychiatric illness. Whether any of these = advances=20 will provide the answer to the cerebral basis of religion, if = one=20 exists, is anybody's guess.


Source Information

Dr. Snyder is a professor of neuroscience at the = Johns Hopkins=20 University School of Medicine, Baltimore.

References

  1. Collins FS. The language of God: a scientist presents = evidence for=20 belief. New York: Free Press, 2007. 
  2. Linden DJ. The accidental mind: how brain evolution has = given us=20 love, memory, dreams, and God. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, 2007.
  3. Trimble MR. The soul in the brain: the cerebral basis of = language,=20 art, and belief. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2007.
  4. Griffiths RR, Richards WA, McCann U, Jesse R. Psilocybin = can=20 occasion mystical-type experiences having substantial and sustained = personal=20 meaning and spiritual significance. Psychopharmacology (Berl)=20 2006;187:268-283. [CrossRef][Medline]
  5. Snyder SH. The audacity principle in science. Proc Am = Philos Soc=20 2005;149:141-158. [ISI]

 
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i;G = 1C(){9(s.1C)s.1C(M,1v);9(s.1Z)E.1j.1F("5I",[i,s])}G = 1l(){9(s.1l)s.1l(i,1v);9(s.1Z)E.1j.1F("6t",[i,s]);9(s.1Z&&!--E.5b)E.1j.1F= ("5K")}},5r:G(s,a,b,e){9(s.3U)s.3U(a,b,e);9(s.1Z)E.1j.1F("5J",[a,s,e])},5= b:0,6S:G(r){2a{I!r.1v&&9n.9l=3D=3D"54:"||(r.1v>=3D6N&&r.1v<9j)||r.1v=3D=3D= 6M||E.V.1N&&r.1v=3D=3DW}29(e){}I P},6R:G(a,c){2a{H b=3Da.5s("6P-5x");I = a.1v=3D=3D6M||b=3D=3DE.49[c]||E.V.1N&&a.1v=3D=3DW}29(e){}I = P},6Q:G(r,b){H c=3Dr.5s("9i-O");H = d=3Db=3D=3D"6K"||!b&&c&&c.1g("6K")>=3D0;H = a=3Dd?r.9g:r.40;9(d&&a.2V.37=3D=3D"5k")6G"5k";9(b=3D=3D"1J")E.5f(a);9(b=3D= =3D"45")a=3D3w("("+a+")");I a},3a:G(a){H = s=3D[];9(a.1c=3D=3D1B||a.4c)E.N(a,G(){s.1a(3f(6.2H)+"=3D"+3f(6.1Q))});J = L(H j 1i = a)9(a[j]&&a[j].1c=3D=3D1B)E.N(a[j],G(){s.1a(3f(j)+"=3D"+3f(6))});J = s.1a(3f(j)+"=3D"+3f(a[j]));I = s.66("&").1p(/%20/g,"+")}});E.1b.1k({1A:G(b,a){I = b?6.1U({1H:"1A",2N:"1A",1r:"1A"},b,a):6.1E(":1P").N(G(){6.R.19=3D6.3h?6.3= h:"";9(E.17(6,"19")=3D=3D"2s")6.R.19=3D"2Z"}).2D()},1z:G(b,a){I = 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    • ' + '
  • ' + '
' + '

I am a:

' + '
  • ' + '
    • ' + '
  • ' + '
    • ' + '
  • ' + '
    • ' + '
  • ' + '
    • ' + '
  • ' + '
' + '
 
', =09 '

 ' +=20 ' 

' + '

' +=20 'Thanks for participating in this survey.

' + '
 
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