From: Subject: Identifying Cancer Stem Cells in Solid Tumors: Case Not Proven -- Hill 66 (4): 1891 -- Cancer Research Date: Tue, 15 Jan 2008 14:42:49 +0100 MIME-Version: 1.0 Content-Type: multipart/related; type="text/html"; boundary="----=_NextPart_000_0000_01C85784.E6509740" X-MimeOLE: Produced By Microsoft MimeOLE V6.00.2900.3198 This is a multi-part message in MIME format. ------=_NextPart_000_0000_01C85784.E6509740 Content-Type: text/html; charset="Windows-1252" Content-Transfer-Encoding: quoted-printable Content-Location: http://cancerres.aacrjournals.org/cgi/content/full/66/4/1891 Identifying Cancer Stem Cells in Solid Tumors: Case = Not Proven -- Hill 66 (4): 1891 -- Cancer Research 3D"Cancer 3D"Ubiquitin 3D"
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[Cancer Research 66, 1891-1896, February 15, = 2006]
=A9 2006 American = Association=20 for Cancer Research

Reviews

Identifying Cancer Stem Cells in Solid Tumors: Case Not Proven=20

Richard P. Hill

Ontario Cancer Institute, Princess Margaret Hospital, = University Health Network and Department of Medical Biophysics, = University of=20 Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada

Requests for reprints: Richard P. Hill, = Department of=20 Medical Biophysics, University of Toronto and Ontario Cancer Institute, = Princess=20 Margaret Hospital, University Health Network, 610 University Avenue, = Toronto,=20 Ontario, Canada. Phone: 416-946-2979; Fax: 416-946-2984; E-mail: hill{at}uhnres.utoronto.ca .


3D"   =20 Abstract
Top
3D"Abstract
Introduction
Theoretical Issues
Technical Issues
Conclusions
References
References 
 = ;
Building=20 on studies of leukemia, a number of recent articles have = reported=20 data suggesting that cancer stem cells could be isolated from = solid=20 human cancers. Some of these reports have speculated that the = isolation of these cells will allow the identification of the = specific molecular properties that can be targeted for = therapeutic=20 purposes. Although previous work with animal model systems = also=20 suggests the presence of stem cells in solid tumors, there = remain=20 many uncertainties, both theoretical and technical, about the = interpretation of the current results. The case that a small=20 proportion of cells in solid tumors are specific cancer stem = cells=20 and that these cells can be successfully identified and = isolated has=20 not yet been proven. (Cancer Res 2006; 66(4): 1891-6) =


3D"   =20 Introduction
Top
Abstract
3D"Introduction
Theoretical Issues
Technical Issues
Conclusions
References
References 
 = ;
The=20 concept of a cancer stem cell is very appealing; it is a cell = that=20 can regrow the tumor and hence is the cell that must be = killed if the=20 tumor is to be controlled by treatment. It has been known for = many=20 years that it often requires a large number of tumor cells to = transplant both rodent and human tumors. Initial studies done = using=20 transplantation of cells from spontaneous tumors into = nonsyngeneic=20 animals or using cells from virally or chemically induced = tumors=20 could potentially be explained by invoking immune rejection. = However,=20 the demonstration of similar results using spontaneously = arising=20 tumors transplanted into syngeneic mice is not easily = explained by=20 this mechanism (= 1),=20 and has led to the suggestion that only a fraction of tumor = cells=20 might have the ability to regrow the tumor (i.e., are cancer = stem=20 cells). This concept is supported by the observation that = serial=20 transplantation of animal tumors often leads to a reduction = in the=20 number of cells required to transplant the tumor as the = number of=20 transplant generations increases, suggesting selection for = cancer=20 stem cells (for example, see ref. = 2).=20

Furthermore, analyses of the doses required to control tumors = with=20 radiation therapy, using information about the measured = radiation=20 sensitivity of tumor cells, suggests that not every cell in a = tumor=20 needs to be killed in order to cure the tumor (for review, = see refs.=20 = 3=96= 5).=20 This is consistent with work reported by Hill and Milas (= 6),=20 who used various spontaneous rodent tumors, particularly = mammary=20 tumors, to show that the radiation dose required to cure = early=20 generation transplants of these tumors (TCD50 = value) was=20 inversely proportional to the number of cells required to = transplant=20 the tumors (the TD50 value). The work also showed = that the=20 TD50 value for mouse mammary tumors was inversely=20 proportional to the plating efficiency of the tumor cells in = culture=20 and that there was a range of more than 2 orders of magnitude = in=20 TD50 value and plating efficiency between the = different=20 tumors. A similar range of plating efficiencies has been = reported for=20 human tumors plated in culture (see e.g., ref. = 7).=20 These analyses suggest that the proportion of cells in a = tumor with=20 the ability to regrow the tumor following treatment (i.e., = cancer=20 stem cells) may be very low (<<1%).

However, as pointed out by Wang and Dick (= 8),=20 because individual cells are not identified in such studies, = it is=20 not possible to distinguish between whether there are varying = numbers=20 of (true) stem cells in different tumors, or whether all = tumor=20 cells in any one tumor retain a probability less that unity = of=20 being able to regrow the tumor. It is also not possible to = rule out=20 the idea that there may be varying degrees of "stemness" in = cancer=20 stem cells derived from tumors. Studies with leukemia, = modeled on the=20 work identifying specific surface markers used to isolate = bone marrow=20 stem cells (long-term reconstituting cells) have succeeded in = identifying cells with specific surface markers that seem to = play a=20 cancer stem cell role in leukemias (= 8).=20 Recent studies with solid human tumors using similar methodologies=20 are being interpreted as evidence for the presence of cancer=20 stem cells in solid tumors (= 9, 10).=20 It was reported that as few as 100 to 200 cells from a = specific cell=20 fraction sorted from primary tumors (e.g., breast or brain = tumors)=20 could successfully transplant the tumors (into the mammary = gland or=20 the brain) of immune-deprived mice, respectively, whereas = much larger=20 numbers of cells (104-105) from other = fractions=20 were not able to transplant the tumors. These findings are = consistent=20 with the hypothesis that cancer stem cells exist but they = suggest=20 that only 3D~1% of cells in the sorted population was able to = act as a=20 "stem-like" cell under the conditions used for testing = tumorigenicity=20 (i.e., the surface markers used for sorting the cells do not=20 really identify the cancer stem cells). Furthermore, there = remain=20 both theoretical and technical questions about whether the = cells=20 sorted are the true (and only) cancer stem cells in the = tumors=20 (see Fig.=20 1). From the perspective of developing new therapeutics = based on=20 the properties of the sorted cells, it is a critical question = whether=20 the cells isolated and identified by their ability to regrow = a tumor=20 in a new transplant site are necessarily the ones (or the = only ones)=20 that can regrow the tumor in its original location following=20 treatment.



View = larger=20 version (63K):
[in=20 this window]
[in a new window]
  		Figure 1. Schematic = diagram to=20 illustrate potential difficulties in sorting and identifying = "cancer=20 stem cells." Top, theoretical concerns; = bottom,=20 technical concerns (discussed in the text). =

 = ;

3D"   =20 Theoretical Issues
Top
Abstract
Introduction
3D"Theoretical Issues
Technical Issues
Conclusions
References
References 
 = ;
The=20 cancer stem cell model is based on the idea, developed from = studies=20 of normal bone marrow, that stemness and maturation or=20 differentiation are mutually exclusive. It does not easily=20 incorporate the idea that there may be variations of stemness = with time. The mutual exclusivity concept has been applied=20 successfully to the normal development of bone marrow, but = the recent=20 observations that both bone marrow and stromal cells derived = from=20 bone marrow may have a wide range of abilities to = differentiate into=20 different cell types suggests that stemness and maturation = are=20 influenced by the environmental stimuli that the cells = experience (11).=20 Similar results are also being reported for cells derived = from=20 a variety of tissues including muscle and brain, two tissues=20 that classically have been regarded as highly differentiated=20 with little proliferative capacity (12,=20 13).=20 Thus, the environment to which normal cells are exposed can = affect=20 their ability to mature and differentiate, and must be = tightly=20 controlled in situ. This is encapsulated in the = concept of a=20 "niche" in the bone marrow that is required to maintain the = status of=20 the bone marrow stem cells (14).=20 Tumor cells are characterized by the fact that they do not = respond=20 normally to homeostatic controls and it is likely that such a = lack of=20 response extends to controls associated with stemness and = maturation.=20 Tumor cells usually contain a wide range of genetic and = epigenetic=20 alterations, and such alterations may affect the relationship = between=20 stemness and differentiation. Whether there is an environment = in=20 solid tumors that could be described as a "cancer stem cell=20 niche" remains to be established.

Furthermore, the genome of cancer cells is known to be unstable, = a=20 factor that drives tumor development and progression, so the=20 relationship between stemness and differentiation may change = in=20 the tumor cells during the lifetime of an individual tumor. = Studies=20 with transplantable tumors have shown high rates of genetic = or=20 epigenetic changes in tumor cells during growth (3D~=2010=965/cell/generation) that can affect = various=20 properties including transplantability (see e.g., refs. 15,=20 16).=20 If these rates are applied to a typical breast cancer (2 cm = diameter,=20 10% of cells in proliferative cycle, 2-3 days cycle time), = this=20 implies 3D~103 genetic or epigenetic changes per = day. Cells=20 with mismatch repair deficiency are also known to have = "mutation"=20 rates 2 to 3 orders of magnitude above background (17),=20 and the breast cancer susceptibility genes BRCA1 and=20 BRCA2 are recognized as playing a role in DNA repair = (18).=20 Changes in gene expression can also be induced by the = environment to=20 which the cells are exposed (e.g., hypoxia) and such changes = can be=20 expressed transiently, thus, not all cells in a tumor = population may=20 be expressing such changes at the time when tumor cells are = sorted=20 for testing of their "stem cell" ability by transplantation = (Fig.=20 1; refs. 19,=20 20).=20 Moreover, such effects may be exacerbated during treatment = because=20 many anticancer agents are also mutagens.

Despite these theoretical concerns about the likelihood that = true=20 cancer stem cells occur in solid tumors, it can be argued = that the=20 findings that cells with stem-like properties can be enriched = by=20 sorting tumor cell populations indicates that such cells do = exist.=20 However, this is only true in a functional sense and it = remains=20 unclear whether or not tumor cells that have apparently lost = the=20 ability to manifest as cancer stem cells today can regain = that=20 ability next week or next month. This issue could be = addressed=20 (albeit not definitively) by establishing in vitro = cultures=20 from the different sorted fractions of tumor cells and = examining, as=20 a function of time, the proportion of the cells in these = cultures=20 that are capable of initiating tumor growth when injected = back into=20 animals.


3D"   =20 Technical Issues
Top
Abstract
Introduction
Theoretical Issues
3D"Technical Issues
Conclusions
References
References 
 = ;
Currently,=20 the isolation and identification of cancer stem cells from = human=20 solid tumors is as much an art as it is a science. It = requires the=20 use of techniques to: (a) prepare a cell suspension, = usually=20 with proteolytic enzymes, (b) sort the cells based on = the=20 expression, or lack thereof, of surface molecular markers or=20 exclusion of the dye, Hoechst 33342, and (c) transplant the=20 cells back into immune-deprived animals to determine how many = of the sorted cells are required to regrow a tumor (see Fig.=20 1). The finding that cell populations can be isolated, = from=20 which different numbers of tumor cells are required to regrow = a=20 tumor after transplantation, is fundamental to the interpretation=20 that stem-like cells are being isolated. Studies with = leukemias=20 have supported this idea (= 8),=20 but in practice, such studies are much more difficult when = applied to=20 solid tumors. It is instructive to examine the various stages = of the=20 experiments.

The environment of the tumor cells. A solid tumor is not a = bag=20 of tumor cells, it contains both tumor cells and a variety of = normal cells and vascular elements set in a complex = extracellular=20 matrix. Interactions between cells and the extracellular = matrix=20 play a major role in controlling their behavior and indeed = may=20 dictate whether or not a tumor develops from a genetically = damaged=20 cell. Equally, an aberrant extracellular matrix may promote=20 cancer development (21).=20 Furthermore, the pathophysiologic microenvironment in tumors = can be=20 very heterogeneous. Both factors can play a significant role = in the=20 expression of a wide range of genes in the tumor cells = including=20 surface markers (extensively shown for hypoxia; refs. 22,=20 23).=20 The breaking of these interactions by preparing cell = suspensions may=20 well change the properties of the cells and testing these = properties=20 by simple injection of cells into a new tissue location is = unlikely=20 to recapitulate the environment experienced by the tumor = cells in the=20 original tumor. It may or may not recapitulate a niche = suitable for=20 the growth of any or all the "cancer stem cells" or may even=20 inhibit their growth (21).=20 Furthermore, cell recovery from solid tumors can be quite = variable=20 (it rarely exceeds 10% of the original cell number in the = tumor) and=20 tumors contain many normal cells, so that there may be = concerns about=20 the representative nature of the recovered cell = populations.=20

Sorting the tumor cells. One selection technique applied = for=20 sorting the tumor cells in the prepared suspension is based = on=20 the presence or absence of surface molecular markers. In the = work on=20 breast cancers reported by Al-Hajj et al. (= 9),=20 these markers (CD44+, CD24=96, and=20 ESA+) were not obviously related to stemness but = rather=20 were features of a differentiating phenotype. The absence of = such=20 markers on stem cells seems to make more sense than their = presence;=20 thus, positive expression of CD44 may be regarded as = surprising.=20 Moreover, it is well recognized that there are a number of = different=20 CD44 molecules expressed on the surface of cells, only one of = which=20 (CD44v) has been particularly associated with metastasis, = which might=20 be considered as a property of cancer stem cells (24).=20 The evidence that the sorted cells may have stem cell = properties is=20 stronger in brain tumors in which the marker used was CD133 = (25),=20 which has previously been associated with "neural stem = cells".=20

However, with any such molecular markers, it is a concern that = the=20 enzyme treatment used during the preparation of the cell = suspension=20 might modify expression on the cell surface, thereby = affecting the=20 population into which the cells are sorted and the ability of = these=20 molecules to play a role in the early stages of tumor growth=20 following transplantation. Another problem may be the loss of = viability of the cells during the enzyme treatment and = sorting=20 procedure. This latter issue could possibly be tested by also = plating=20 the cells in culture to test their clonogenic capacity. A = final=20 concern here is that the proportion of cells in the cell = suspension=20 which express the markers used for sorting (e.g., 11-35%=20 CD44+, CD24=96 cells) in the breast cancer=20 studies of Al-Hajj et al. (= 9) is=20 too great for them all to represent true cancer stem cells, = based on=20 the work in animal tumors described above. This number can be = contrasted with the finding that >10,000 cells from the = unsorted=20 populations were needed to initiate tumors, implying a stem = cell=20 fraction in the unsorted population of <0.01%. There is a = clear=20 discrepancy between these numbers and this is not accounted = for even=20 if only 1% of the sorted cell population were actually stem=20 cells.

In this context, it might be informative if the expression of = the=20 markers used for sorting in the cell suspension could also be = studied=20 in the primary tumor mass using immunohistochemistry, so that = evidence for a correlation could be sought. The work with = brain=20 tumors used immunohistochemistry, but whether there was a = correlation=20 between the proportions of CD133+ cells in the = tumors and=20 in the derived suspensions was not reported (10).=20 During sorting, these authors also found that there was a = very=20 high proportion of putative stem cells (CD133+ cells) = in=20 primary brain tumors (6-29%), although it is noteworthy that = the=20 higher numbers were mostly associated with the more = aggressive=20 tumor type. For these brain tumors, as few as 100 = CD133+=20 cells could form tumors in the brains of nonobese = diabetic/severe=20 combined immunodeficient mice, whereas 50 to 100 x 103 CD133=96 = cells=20 could not. The number of unsorted cells required to form = tumors=20 in the mouse brain was not reported for these tumors, = although=20 the authors indicate that others have found values of = 105=20 to 106 cells required to transplant primary brain = tumors.=20 If such numbers apply to the brain tumors actually studied, = there=20 is again a significant discrepancy between the fraction of=20 putative stem cells (CD133+) in the tumors and the = number=20 of sorted or unsorted cells required for successful tumor = transplant.=20 In both cases, the proportion of putative stem cells in the=20 tumors is much higher than would be predicted from the = studies=20 with rodent tumors, and if correct, implies that it would be=20 unnecessary to sort these cells for identification and = testing of=20 specific drugs targeted at cancer stem cells.

An alternative strategy for sorting is to identify a so-called=20 "side population" of tumor cells based on increased efficacy=20 for exclusion of the dye Hoechst 33342. This approach is also = problematic. The technique seems to be highly variable, may=20 require modification for each tumor cell population studied,=20 and there are concerns about the possible toxicity of Hoechst = dye in the cells that do not form part of the side-population = (26).=20 Furthermore, such side populations can be identified in many = long=20 transplanted tumor cell lines (26=9628).=20 This observation has been interpreted to indicate that such = cell=20 lines contain small fractions of stem cells, but this is = unlikely,=20 on the basis of animal studies and more likely reflects the=20 inadequacy of the sorting technique or of the testing = procedures=20 for tumor transplantability (see below). Also, the cells in = the=20 side population express high levels of known drug-efflux = proteins on=20 their surface but why these proteins should be associated = with=20 stemness is not entirely clear. In fact, a recent article (27)=20 has reported that it is low expression of one of the major = candidate=20 drug-efflux proteins for identifying breast stem cells = (ABCG2) that=20 is associated with stemness in certain cancer cell lines = rather than=20 high expression. These authors suggested a two-stage model = for the=20 expression of this protein in relation to stemness, = suggesting that=20 the protein was turned on and then off again during = maturation of the=20 tumor cells. The authors had to postulate that other = (unidentified)=20 drug-efflux proteins were responsible for the presence of the = ABCG2-negative cells in the side-population.

Tumor transplantation. The test of whether a tumor cell = can=20 regrow a tumor is not simple. It is highly dependent on the=20 environment to which the cell is exposed. Careful studies = using=20 spontaneously arising tumors in syngeneic rodents have shown=20 that the number of cells required to transplant a tumor = depends=20 on the location of transplantation and their environment; = e.g.,=20 on whether heavily irradiated tumor cells (feeder cells) were = injected along with the viable tumor cells (known as the = Revesz=20 effect; ref. 29).=20 Other biological substances, including brain extract, have = been shown=20 to have similar effects (30).=20 The presence of a large number of heavily irradiated cells=20 (105-106 per injection) was shown to = modify the=20 number of cells required to transplant a tumor s.c. by orders = of=20 magnitude and the size of this effect varied from one tumor = to=20 another (29).=20 Even long transplanted cell populations in which virtually = every cell=20 has stem cell properties are influenced by the Revesz effect. = For=20 example, such cell lines can produce tumors from as little as = one=20 to three cells if transplanted in the presence of large = numbers=20 of heavily irradiated cells, but may require hundreds of = cells=20 to produce a tumor in the absence of such heavily irradiated=20 cells. The location of the transplant can also be an = important=20 factor even for s.c. implants (see ref. 31=20 for a review of various factors that can affect = TD50=20 assays). Implantation into the kidney capsule has also been = shown to=20 be a highly receptive site to obtain tumor growth from small = numbers=20 of tumor cells or small pieces of tumor (32,=20 33),=20 and it has been shown that inducing an inflammatory response = at the=20 site of injection could modify the transplantability of tumor = cells.

Early work suggested that the ability of the tumor cells to = remain=20 and survive at the injection site was an important aspect of = the=20 Revesz effect (30).=20 More recent studies identifying growth factors and angiogenic = factors=20 produced by tumor cells suggest that an important function of = the=20 feeder cells may have been to provide a suitable = concentration of=20 stimulatory growth factors for the viable tumor cells to be = able to=20 survive and proliferate. More recent work demonstrating the = increased=20 efficacy of transplantation into s.c. or orthotopic sites = when the=20 cell suspension is mixed with Matrigel (a basement = membrane-like=20 substance that contains many growth factors) prior to = implantation,=20 is consistent with this idea (34,=20 35).=20 Another example is the widely reported observation that the = MCF-7=20 breast cancer cell line transplants more efficiently and = grows better=20 in immune-deficient mice that have been separately implanted = with=20 pellets that provide a slow release of estrogen (see e.g., = ref. 36).=20 These findings suggest that the cells putatively identified = as cancer=20 stem cells by transplantation procedures might be cells that = are=20 individually capable of making sufficient growth factors to = close the=20 autocrine growth loop or those which can effectively interact = with=20 and obtain such stimulation from the (micro)environment into = which=20 they are implanted, rather than those having specific = properties of=20 stemness when in a large tumor mass. It is probable that the=20 molecular phenotype that allows a tumor cell to manifest as a = cancer=20 stem cell on transplantation varies depending on the = procedure=20 adopted for testing stemness.


3D"   =20 Conclusions
Top
Abstract
Introduction
Theoretical Issues
Technical Issues
3D"Conclusions
References
References 
 = ;
The=20 above concerns do not rule out the possibility that cancer = stem cells=20 exist in solid tumors and that they play a major role in the = local=20 regrowth of cancers following treatment and/or in the = development of=20 metastases. But it is very possible that, in cancer cells, = degrees of=20 stemness exist and that these are variably expressed = depending on the=20 environment to which the cells are exposed. There is a tenet = in=20 Scottish law that allows the court to bring down a verdict of = "not=20 proven" in a case in which the evidence is suggestive but=20 insufficient for conviction. In my view, this is the current = status=20 of the case for identifying cancer stem cells from solid = tumors.=20


3D"   =20 Acknowledgments =
 
Grant support:=20 Canadian Institutes of Health Research, the Ontario Cancer = Research=20 Network, and the National Cancer Institute of Canada with = funds=20 raised from the Terry Fox Run.

Received 9/25/05. Revised 11/ 8/05. Accepted 11/23/05.


3D"   =20 References
Top
Abstract
Introduction
Theoretical Issues
Technical Issues
Conclusions
3D"References
References 
 = ;

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As noted by Wicha et al. (1),=20 the concept of cancer stem cells is not new. The recent = revival of=20 interest in this topic arises from studies of normal tissue = stem=20 cells and from experiments suggesting that cells with = stem-like=20 properties can be sorted from solid tumors based on the = expression of=20 specific surface markers. The existence and properties of = normal=20 tissue stem cells are of great interest but provide only = indirect=20 evidence for the presence of stem cells in solid cancers. = Many of=20 the issues discussed in the article by Wicha et al. (1),=20 such as anchorage-independent growth, metastatic dormancy, = and the=20 deregulation of specific signaling pathways (Wnt, Notch, and=20 Hedgehog) involved in normal cell differentiation, focus on = the=20 concept of cancer stem cells, but at best, they provide only=20 circumstantial evidence of their existence. In fact, the = evidence for=20 deregulation of these signaling pathways in cancers could be=20 interpreted to indicate that control of "stemness" is lost in = cancer=20 cells. Furthermore, the argument that transgenic models for=20 cancer development, which use tissue-specific promoters, may = not=20 be representative of human cancers is potentially = contradictory,=20 because it also implies that transformation by known = oncogenes=20 can convert differentiated cells into cancer cells, thus = undermining=20 the concept that cancers arise from aberrant normal stem = cells.=20 In fact, in their article (1),=20 Wicha et al. state that they have proposed the possibility = that=20 mammary tumors can arise from oncogenically transformed early = progenitor (differentiated) cells and Singh et al. (2)=20 suggest the same possibility for brain tumors.

An important aspect of the current debate is whether the cells=20 being sorted from tumors are truly cancer stem cells and = whether=20 they are the only cells with self-renewal capacity in the = tumor.=20 A related issue is the specificity of the markers currently=20 being used to isolate stem-like cells from different solid = cancers.=20 Cells expressing these markers can represent up to nearly 30% = of the cells in the breast and brain tumors studied. These = numbers=20 are not consistent with the expectation that "cancer stem = cells"=20 are a rare cell population in solid tumors. The data for = prostate=20 cancers from Maitland et al. [ref. (38) in Wicha et al. (1)]=20 reporting that CD44+/3D{alpha}=202=DF1hi/CD133+=20 cells (which are 0.1% of the tumor cell population) is more=20 consistent with expectation but these data remain unpublished = at this=20 time. The work of Glinsky et al. (3)=20 that identified an 11-gene signature whose expression was = regulated=20 by the stem cell self-renewal gene Bmi-1 also raises = the=20 question of the proportion of cells in the tumors expressing = this=20 signature. By its nature, the microarray technology used in = these=20 studies requires that a significant fraction of the cells in = the=20 tumor must be expressing the signature for it to be detected. = One=20 might conclude from this data that, if the current sorting = techniques=20 are truly isolating cancer stem cells, then these cells are = not a=20 rare cell population within many solid tumors but rather are = a large=20 minority. This would certainly be a paradigm shift in = thinking about=20 cancer stem cells and would invalidate much of the argument = for=20 specific drug development to target cancer stem cells. Such a = conclusion is clearly premature, as there are other possible=20 explanations for these results, but it illustrates the = current=20 uncertainties about identifying cancer stem cells in solid=20 tumors.


3D"   =20 References 
 
  1. Wicha MS, Liu S, Dontu G. Cancer stem cells: an old = idea=97a=20 paradigm shift. Cancer Res=20 2006;66:1883=9690.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  2. Singh SK, Clarke ID, Hide T, Dirks PB. Cancer stem cells = in=20 nervous system tumors. Oncogene 2004;23:7267=9673.[CrossRef][Medline]
  3. Glinsky GV, Berezovska O, Glinskii AB. Microarray = analysis=20 identifies a death-from-cancer signature predicting therapy failure in = patients with multiple types of cancer. J Clin Invest = 2005;115:1503=9621.[Abstract/Free Full Text]


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// = 0=3Duninitialized,1=3Dloading,2=3Dloaded,3=3Dinteractive,4=3Dcomplete=0A= this.status =3D 0; // HTTP status codes=0A= this.statusText =3D '';=0A= this._headers =3D [];=0A= this._aborted =3D false;=0A= this._async =3D true;=0A= this._defaultCharset =3D 'ISO-8859-1';=0A= this._getCharset =3D function() {=0A= var charset =3D _defaultCharset;=0A= var contentType =3D = this.getResponseHeader('Content-type').toUpperCase();=0A= val =3D contentType.indexOf('CHARSET=3D');=0A= if (val !=3D -1) {=0A= charset =3D contentType.substring(val);=0A= }=0A= val =3D charset.indexOf(';');=0A= if (val !=3D -1) {=0A= charset =3D charset.substring(0, val);=0A= }=0A= val =3D charset.indexOf(',');=0A= if (val !=3D -1) {=0A= charset =3D charset.substring(0, val);=0A= }=0A= return charset;=0A= };=0A= this.abort =3D function() {=0A= this._aborted =3D true;=0A= };=0A= this.getAllResponseHeaders =3D function() {=0A= return this.getAllResponseHeader('*');=0A= };=0A= this.getAllResponseHeader =3D function(header) {=0A= var ret =3D '';=0A= for (var i =3D 0; i < this._headers.length; i++) {=0A= if (header =3D=3D '*' || this._headers[i].h =3D=3D header) {=0A= ret +=3D this._headers[i].h + ': ' + this._headers[i].v + '\n';=0A= }=0A= }=0A= return ret;=0A= };=0A= this.getResponseHeader =3D function(header) {=0A= var ret =3D getAllResponseHeader(header);=0A= var i =3D ret.indexOf('\n');=0A= if (i !=3D -1) {=0A= ret =3D ret.substring(0, i);=0A= }=0A= return ret;=0A= };=0A= this.setRequestHeader =3D function(header, value) {=0A= this._headers[this._headers.length] =3D {h:header, v:value};=0A= };=0A= this.open =3D function(method, url, async, user, password) {=0A= this.method =3D method;=0A= this.url =3D url;=0A= this._async =3D true;=0A= this._aborted =3D false;=0A= this._headers =3D [];=0A= if (arguments.length >=3D 3) {=0A= this._async =3D async;=0A= }=0A= if (arguments.length > 3) {=0A= opera.postError('XMLHttpRequest.open() - user/password not = supported');=0A= }=0A= this.readyState =3D 1;=0A= if (this.onreadystatechange) {=0A= this.onreadystatechange();=0A= }=0A= };=0A= this.send =3D function(data) {=0A= if (!navigator.javaEnabled()) {=0A= alert("XMLHttpRequest.send() - Java must be installed and = enabled.");=0A= return;=0A= }=0A= if (this._async) {=0A= setTimeout(this._sendasync, 0, this, data);=0A= // this is not really asynchronous and won't execute until the = current=0A= // execution context ends=0A= } else {=0A= this._sendsync(data);=0A= }=0A= }=0A= this._sendasync =3D function(req, data) {=0A= if (!req._aborted) {=0A= req._sendsync(data);=0A= }=0A= };=0A= this._sendsync =3D function(data) {=0A= this.readyState =3D 2;=0A= if (this.onreadystatechange) {=0A= this.onreadystatechange();=0A= }=0A= // open connection=0A= var url =3D new java.net.URL(new = java.net.URL(window.location.href), this.url);=0A= var conn =3D url.openConnection();=0A= for (var i =3D 0; i < this._headers.length; i++) {=0A= conn.setRequestProperty(this._headers[i].h, this._headers[i].v);=0A= }=0A= this._headers =3D [];=0A= if (this.method =3D=3D 'POST') {=0A= // POST data=0A= conn.setDoOutput(true);=0A= var wr =3D new = java.io.OutputStreamWriter(conn.getOutputStream(), this._getCharset());=0A= wr.write(data);=0A= wr.flush();=0A= wr.close();=0A= }=0A= // read response headers=0A= // NOTE: the getHeaderField() methods always return nulls for me :(=0A= var gotContentEncoding =3D false;=0A= var gotContentLength =3D false;=0A= var gotContentType =3D false;=0A= var gotDate =3D false;=0A= var gotExpiration =3D false;=0A= var gotLastModified =3D false;=0A= for (var i =3D 0; ; i++) {=0A= var hdrName =3D conn.getHeaderFieldKey(i);=0A= var hdrValue =3D conn.getHeaderField(i);=0A= if (hdrName =3D=3D null && hdrValue =3D=3D null) {=0A= break;=0A= }=0A= if (hdrName !=3D null) {=0A= this._headers[this._headers.length] =3D {h:hdrName, = v:hdrValue};=0A= switch (hdrName.toLowerCase()) {=0A= case 'content-encoding': gotContentEncoding =3D true; break;=0A= case 'content-length' : gotContentLength =3D true; break;=0A= case 'content-type' : gotContentType =3D true; break;=0A= case 'date' : gotDate =3D true; break;=0A= case 'expires' : gotExpiration =3D true; break;=0A= case 'last-modified' : gotLastModified =3D true; break;=0A= }=0A= }=0A= }=0A= // try to fill in any missing header information=0A= var val;=0A= val =3D conn.getContentEncoding();=0A= if (val !=3D null && !gotContentEncoding) = this._headers[this._headers.length] =3D {h:'Content-encoding', v:val};=0A= val =3D conn.getContentLength();=0A= if (val !=3D -1 && !gotContentLength) = this._headers[this._headers.length] =3D {h:'Content-length', v:val};=0A= val =3D conn.getContentType();=0A= if (val !=3D null && !gotContentType) = this._headers[this._headers.length] =3D {h:'Content-type', v:val};=0A= val =3D conn.getDate();=0A= if (val !=3D 0 && !gotDate) this._headers[this._headers.length] = =3D {h:'Date', v:(new Date(val)).toUTCString()};=0A= val =3D conn.getExpiration();=0A= if (val !=3D 0 && !gotExpiration) = this._headers[this._headers.length] =3D {h:'Expires', v:(new = Date(val)).toUTCString()};=0A= val =3D conn.getLastModified();=0A= if (val !=3D 0 && !gotLastModified) = this._headers[this._headers.length] =3D {h:'Last-modified', v:(new = Date(val)).toUTCString()};=0A= // read response data=0A= var reqdata =3D '';=0A= var stream =3D conn.getInputStream();=0A= if (stream) {=0A= var reader =3D new java.io.BufferedReader(new = java.io.InputStreamReader(stream, this._getCharset()));=0A= var line;=0A= while ((line =3D reader.readLine()) !=3D null) {=0A= if (this.readyState =3D=3D 2) {=0A= this.readyState =3D 3;=0A= if (this.onreadystatechange) {=0A= this.onreadystatechange();=0A= }=0A= }=0A= reqdata +=3D line + '\n';=0A= }=0A= reader.close();=0A= this.status =3D 200;=0A= this.statusText =3D 'OK';=0A= this.responseText =3D reqdata;=0A= this.readyState =3D 4;=0A= if (this.onreadystatechange) {=0A= this.onreadystatechange();=0A= }=0A= if (this.onload) {=0A= this.onload();=0A= }=0A= } else {=0A= // error=0A= this.status =3D 404;=0A= this.statusText =3D 'Not Found';=0A= this.responseText =3D '';=0A= this.readyState =3D 4;=0A= if (this.onreadystatechange) {=0A= this.onreadystatechange();=0A= }=0A= if (this.onerror) {=0A= this.onerror();=0A= }=0A= }=0A= };=0A= };=0A= }=0A= // ActiveXObject emulation=0A= if (!window.ActiveXObject && window.XMLHttpRequest) {=0A= window.ActiveXObject =3D function(type) {=0A= switch (type.toLowerCase()) {=0A= case 'microsoft.xmlhttp':=0A= case 'msxml2.xmlhttp':=0A= case 'msxml2.xmlhttp.3.0':=0A= case 'msxml2.xmlhttp.4.0':=0A= case 'msxml2.xmlhttp.5.0':=0A= return new XMLHttpRequest();=0A= }=0A= return null;=0A= };=0A= }=0A= ------=_NextPart_000_0000_01C85784.E6509740 Content-Type: application/octet-stream Content-Transfer-Encoding: quoted-printable Content-Location: http://cancerres.aacrjournals.org/javascript/ajax/utility.js /************************************************************************= *****=0A= * javascript/ajax/utility.js=0A= *=0A= * Utility functions for working with XMLHttpRequest data.=0A= *=0A= * Copyright 2006 Board of Trustees of the Leland Stanford Junior = University.=0A= = *************************************************************************= ***/=0A= =0A= /*=0A= * Copy XML nodes into an HTMLElement. This effectively=0A= * clones XML markup which uses XHTML naming conventions=0A= * into an HTML DOM.=0A= */=0A= function copy_xml_to_html(src, dst) {=0A= if (src.nodeType =3D=3D 1) { /* Node.ELEMENT_NODE */=0A= var e =3D document.createElement(src.nodeName);=0A= for (var i =3D 0; i < src.childNodes.length; i++) {=0A= copy_xml_to_html(src.childNodes[i], e);=0A= }=0A= for (var i =3D 0; i < src.attributes.length; i++) {=0A= var n =3D src.attributes[i].name;=0A= var v =3D unescape_xml_string(src.attributes[i].value); =0A= e.setAttribute(n, v);=0A= if (n =3D=3D "class") {=0A= e.className =3D v;=0A= }=0A= else if (n =3D=3D "style") {=0A= set_css_style(v, e, "");=0A= }=0A= }=0A= dst.appendChild(e);=0A= }=0A= else if (src.nodeType =3D=3D 3) { /* Node.TEXT_NODE */=0A= dst.appendChild(document.createTextNode(src.nodeValue));=0A= }=0A= }=0A= =0A= /* =0A= * It is unclear that this is the right thing to be calling=0A= * from copy_xml_to_html, but it appears that Safari decides=0A= * to convert & to the NCR #, and then encodes that=0A= * NCR to &%26%2338;. So, I'm going to treat the DOM Attr=0A= * value as a plain string, and run our XML string input=0A= * through the decoding routine below.=0A= */=0A= function unescape_xml_string(s) {=0A= return s.replace(/'/g, "'")=0A= .replace(/'/g, "'")=0A= .replace(/"/g, "\"")=0A= .replace(/"/g, "\"")=0A= .replace(/>/g, ">")=0A= .replace(/>/g, ">")=0A= .replace(/</g, "<")=0A= .replace(/</g, "<")=0A= .replace(/&/g, "&")=0A= .replace(/&/g, "&");=0A= }=0A= =0A= /*=0A= * Parse set of CSS rules and apply them to an element.=0A= * This is quite horrifying, but I'm unable to determine=0A= * how else to handle this with IE 6. FireFox and other=0A= * sane browsers let you simply set the style attribute=0A= * or use e.style.setProperty(rule, value, priority),=0A= * IE 6 appears to have neither of these capabilities..=0A= */=0A= function set_css_style(css, e, priority) {=0A= var rules =3D css.split(";");=0A= for (var i =3D 0; i < rules.length; i++) {=0A= var nvpair =3D rules[i].split(":");=0A= if (nvpair.length =3D=3D 2) {=0A= try {=0A= var name =3D nvpair[0]; /* style attribute */=0A= var value =3D nvpair[1]; /* attribute value */=0A= =0A= /*=0A= * For each possible style attribute, set the=0A= * appropriate style property in the element.=0A= */=0A= if (name =3D=3D "background") {=0A= e.style.background =3D value;=0A= }=0A= else if (name =3D=3D "background-attachment") {=0A= e.style.backgroundAttachment =3D value;=0A= }=0A= else if (name =3D=3D "background-color") {=0A= e.style.backgroundColor =3D value;=0A= }=0A= else if (name =3D=3D "background-image") {=0A= e.style.backgroundImage =3D value;=0A= }=0A= else if (name =3D=3D "background-position") {=0A= e.style.backgroundPosition =3D value;=0A= }=0A= else if (name =3D=3D "background-position-x") {=0A= e.style.backgroundPositionX =3D value;=0A= }=0A= else if (name =3D=3D "background-position-y") {=0A= e.style.backgroundPositionY =3D value;=0A= }=0A= else if (name =3D=3D "background-repeat") {=0A= e.style.backgroundRepeat =3D value;=0A= }=0A= else if (name =3D=3D "behavior") {=0A= e.style.behavior =3D value;=0A= }=0A= else if (name =3D=3D "border") {=0A= e.style.border =3D value;=0A= }=0A= else if (name =3D=3D "border-bottom") {=0A= e.style.borderBottom =3D value;=0A= }=0A= else if (name =3D=3D "border-bottom-color") {=0A= e.style.borderBottomColor =3D value;=0A= }=0A= else if (name =3D=3D "border-bottom-style") {=0A= e.style.borderBottomStyle =3D value;=0A= }=0A= else if (name =3D=3D "border-bottom-width") {=0A= e.style.borderBottomWidth =3D value;=0A= }=0A= else if (name =3D=3D "border-collapse") {=0A= e.style.borderCollapse =3D value;=0A= }=0A= else if (name =3D=3D "border-color") {=0A= e.style.borderColor =3D value;=0A= }=0A= else if (name =3D=3D "border-left") {=0A= e.style.borderLeft =3D value;=0A= }=0A= else if (name =3D=3D "border-left-color") {=0A= e.style.borderLeftColor =3D value;=0A= }=0A= else if (name =3D=3D "border-left-style") {=0A= e.style.borderLeftStyle =3D value;=0A= }=0A= else if (name =3D=3D "border-left-width") {=0A= e.style.borderLeftWidth =3D value;=0A= }=0A= else if (name =3D=3D "border-right") {=0A= e.style.borderRight =3D value;=0A= }=0A= else if (name =3D=3D "border-right-color") {=0A= e.style.borderRightColor =3D value;=0A= }=0A= else if (name =3D=3D "border-right-style") {=0A= e.style.borderRightStyle =3D value;=0A= }=0A= else if (name =3D=3D "border-right-width") {=0A= e.style.borderRightWidth =3D value;=0A= }=0A= else if (name =3D=3D "border-style") {=0A= e.style.borderStyle =3D value;=0A= }=0A= else if (name =3D=3D "border-top") {=0A= e.style.borderTop =3D value;=0A= }=0A= else if (name =3D=3D "border-top-color") {=0A= e.style.borderTopColor =3D value;=0A= }=0A= else if (name =3D=3D "border-top-style") {=0A= e.style.borderTopStyle =3D value;=0A= }=0A= else if (name =3D=3D "border-top-width") {=0A= e.style.borderTopWidth =3D value;=0A= }=0A= else if (name =3D=3D "border-width") {=0A= e.style.borderWidth =3D value;=0A= }=0A= else if (name =3D=3D "bottom") {=0A= e.style.bottom =3D value;=0A= }=0A= else if (name =3D=3D "clear") {=0A= e.style.clear =3D value;=0A= }=0A= else if (name =3D=3D "clip") {=0A= e.style.clip =3D value;=0A= }=0A= else if (name =3D=3D "color") {=0A= e.style.color =3D value;=0A= }=0A= else if (name =3D=3D "cssText") {=0A= e.style.Sets =3D value;=0A= }=0A= else if (name =3D=3D "cursor") {=0A= e.style.cursor =3D value;=0A= }=0A= else if (name =3D=3D "direction") {=0A= e.style.direction =3D value;=0A= }=0A= else if (name =3D=3D "display") {=0A= e.style.display =3D value;=0A= }=0A= else if (name =3D=3D "font") {=0A= e.style.font =3D value;=0A= }=0A= else if (name =3D=3D "font-family") {=0A= e.style.fontFamily =3D value;=0A= }=0A= else if (name =3D=3D "font-size") {=0A= e.style.fontSize =3D value;=0A= }=0A= else if (name =3D=3D "font-style") {=0A= e.style.fontStyle =3D value;=0A= }=0A= else if (name =3D=3D "font-variant") {=0A= e.style.fontVariant =3D value;=0A= }=0A= else if (name =3D=3D "font-weight") {=0A= e.style.fontWeight =3D value;=0A= }=0A= else if (name =3D=3D "height") {=0A= e.style.height =3D value;=0A= }=0A= else if (name =3D=3D "ime-mode") {=0A= e.style.imeMode =3D value;=0A= }=0A= else if (name =3D=3D "layout-flow") {=0A= e.style.layoutFlow =3D value;=0A= }=0A= else if (name =3D=3D "layout-grid") {=0A= e.style.layoutGrid =3D value;=0A= }=0A= else if (name =3D=3D "layout-grid-char") {=0A= e.style.layoutGridChar =3D value;=0A= }=0A= else if (name =3D=3D "layout-grid-line") {=0A= e.style.layoutGridLine =3D value;=0A= }=0A= else if (name =3D=3D "layout-grid-mode") {=0A= e.style.layoutGridMode =3D value;=0A= }=0A= else if (name =3D=3D "layout-grid-type") {=0A= e.style.layoutGridType =3D value;=0A= }=0A= else if (name =3D=3D "left") {=0A= e.style.left =3D value;=0A= }=0A= else if (name =3D=3D "letter-spacing") {=0A= e.style.letterSpacing =3D value;=0A= }=0A= else if (name =3D=3D "line-break") {=0A= e.style.lineBreak =3D value;=0A= }=0A= else if (name =3D=3D "line-height") {=0A= e.style.lineHeight =3D value;=0A= }=0A= else if (name =3D=3D "list-style") {=0A= e.style.listStyle =3D value;=0A= }=0A= else if (name =3D=3D "list-style-image") {=0A= e.style.listStyleImage =3D value;=0A= }=0A= else if (name =3D=3D "list-style-position") {=0A= e.style.listStylePosition =3D value;=0A= }=0A= else if (name =3D=3D "list-style-type") {=0A= e.style.listStyleType =3D value;=0A= }=0A= else if (name =3D=3D "margin") {=0A= e.style.margin =3D value;=0A= }=0A= else if (name =3D=3D "margin-bottom") {=0A= e.style.marginBottom =3D value;=0A= }=0A= else if (name =3D=3D "margin-left") {=0A= e.style.marginLeft =3D value;=0A= }=0A= else if (name =3D=3D "margin-right") {=0A= e.style.marginRight =3D value;=0A= }=0A= else if (name =3D=3D "margin-top") {=0A= e.style.marginTop =3D value;=0A= }=0A= else if (name =3D=3D "min-height") {=0A= e.style.minHeight =3D value;=0A= }=0A= else if (name =3D=3D "overflow") {=0A= e.style.overflow =3D value;=0A= }=0A= else if (name =3D=3D "overflow-x") {=0A= e.style.overflowX =3D value;=0A= }=0A= else if (name =3D=3D "overflow-y") {=0A= e.style.overflowY =3D value;=0A= }=0A= else if (name =3D=3D "padding") {=0A= e.style.padding =3D value;=0A= }=0A= else if (name =3D=3D "padding-bottom") {=0A= e.style.paddingBottom =3D value;=0A= }=0A= else if (name =3D=3D "padding-left") {=0A= e.style.paddingLeft =3D value;=0A= }=0A= else if (name =3D=3D "padding-right") {=0A= e.style.paddingRight =3D value;=0A= }=0A= else if (name =3D=3D "padding-top") {=0A= e.style.paddingTop =3D value;=0A= }=0A= else if (name =3D=3D "page-break-after") {=0A= e.style.pageBreakAfter =3D value;=0A= }=0A= else if (name 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