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Nature Reviews Cancer = 6, 425-436 = (June 2006) | = doi:10.1038/nrc1889

Brain tumour stem cells

Angelo L. Vescovi1,=20 Rossella Galli2=20 & Brent A. Reynolds3 =20 Abo= ut the=20 authors

To= p of page

Abstract

The dogma that the genesis of new cells is a negligible = event in=20 the adult mammalian brain has long influenced our perception and = understanding=20 of the origin and development of CNS tumours. The discovery that new = neurons and=20 glia are produced throughout life from neural stem cells provides new=20 possibilities for the candidate cells of origin of CNS neoplasias. The = emerging=20 hypothesis is that alterations in the cellular and genetic mechanisms = that=20 control adult neurogenesis might contribute to brain tumorigenesis, = thereby=20 allowing the identification of new therapeutic strategies.

The central role of the brain in every aspect of bodily = function,=20 and the dramatic functional disturbances that arise with minimal = disturbance to=20 the neural cyto-architecture or circuitry, account for the severity of = many brain = tumours. These=20 tumours are often lethal, as conventional anti-cancer treatments have = limited or=20 no efficacy.

There is now increasing awareness that a principal = hurdle in=20 understanding and successfully treating these cancers might be overcome = by the=20 identification of a defined cell that could function as a therapeutic = target.=20 Similar to haematopoietic and breast cancers, only a few atypical cells = within=20 the cancerous mass might be responsible for the growth and recurrence of = some=20 brain tumours. Evidence indicates that the real culprit is a peculiar,=20 transformed CNS cell type that has the defining properties of somatic = stem=20 cells, as well as cancer-initiating ability =97 a brain tumour stem = cell.

Here, we review the findings that demonstrate the = presence and=20 involvement of brain tumour stem cells in the initiation and propagation = of=20 brain tumours, particularly glioblastomas, medulloblastomas and = ependymomas, for=20 which the identification of specific tumour stem cells has recently been = described. We provide a comparative analysis of the functional = properties of=20 brain tumour stem cells relative to normal neural stem cells and in the = context=20 of adult cell genesis. We also discuss the origin of brain tumour stem = cells=20 from normal adult neural stem cells or progenitor cells, and cover the = possible=20 involvement of normal neurogenetic regulatory mechanisms in the = physiology of=20 brain tumours and brain tumour stem cells. The theoretical and practical = consequences of the idea that brain tumour stem cells are 'diseased' = cells with=20 deregulated self-renewal will be analysed, together with the conceptual = and=20 clinical implications.

Characteristics of=20 malignant brain tumours

Different types of tumour of neuroepithelial origin have = been=20 identified and classified according to the cell types that predominate = within=20 the tumour mass (Box= 1).=20 Whereas grade IV gliomas are the most frequent primary intraparenchymal = neoplasm=20 in the elderly, medulloblastomas have the highest incidence in = children.

Box= 1 | WHO=20 classification of brain tumours
  • Ful= l box=20

The therapy of intracranial tumours presents many = problems that=20 result from the inherent vulnerability of the brain parenchyma. Abnormal=20 ionic flux, excito-toxicity that is related to glutamate release = from dead=20 cells, reperfusion=20 and compressive forces often cause irreversible damage to CNS tissues. = In=20 addition, the tendency of specific brain tumours, such as the astrocytic = and=20 embryonal subtypes, to extensively infiltrate the neighbouring brain = structures=20 and to relapse, often progressing toward malignancy, makes the prognosis = of=20 these cancers poor.

On the basis of World Health Organization = classification, the most=20 malignant form of glioma is grade IV, which is commonly known as = glioblastoma=20 multiforme. This highly aggressive tumour develops either de=20 novo (primary glioblastoma multiforme) or as the result of the = malignant=20 progression from a low-grade glioma (secondary glioblastoma = multiforme)1.=20 In both cases, prognosis is poor and the median survival when = radiotherapy and=20 chemotherapy are combined is 14.6 months2.=20 Most importantly, glioblastoma multiforme is characterized by a diffuse=20 tissue-distribution pattern, with extensive dissemination of the tumour = cells=20 within the brain that hinders complete surgical resection3.=20 Similarly, medulloblastoma, which is thought to arise from the malignant = transformation of progenitors of the external granular layer of the = cerebellum,=20 is a highly malignant paediatric cancer with a poor prognosis, although = there=20 has been some progress recently. As opposed to glial tumours, = medulloblastoma is=20 primarily characterized by neuronal differentiation and is considered an = embryonal tumour4.

Stem cells in the = adult CNS

Cancer arises from a series of mutations that occurs in = few or=20 even single founder cells. These cells eventually acquire unlimited and=20 uncontrolled proliferation potential5.=20 Two hypothetical models can explain this phenomenon (Box= 2).=20 The stochastic model predicts that all the cells in a tumour have a = similar=20 tumorigenic potential, which is activated asynchronously and at a low = frequency=20 in certain cells6.=20 Conversely, the hierarchical model holds that only a rare subset of = cells within=20 the tumour have significant proliferation capacity and, particularly, = the=20 ability to generate new tumours, with the remainder of the tumour cells=20 representing differentiating or terminally differentiated cells6.=20 The latter hypothesis fits with the cancer-stem-cell theory and is now = supported=20 by a plethora of recent observations7, = 8, = 9.

Box= 2 |=20 Tumour initiation and development
  • Ful= l box=20

Recently, the concept of cancer stem cells has been = extended to=20 tumours of the brain, whose archetypically quiescent tissue has long = been=20 thought not to undergo significant cell turnover. This concept, known as = the 'no=20 new neuron' dogma, and the implied absence of brain stem cells in = adulthood, was=20 challenged in the early 1960s when the genesis of new, functional brain = cells=20 (neurogenesis) was described in the adult mammalian CNS10= ,=20 11= ,=20 12= .=20 However, the 'no new neuron' dogma withstood the challenge: although resting=20 embryonic-like tissue remnants, which can persist within the CNS = parenchyma,=20 were also envisioned as the possible cellular source of brain = tumours13= ,=20 tumour cells in the brain were hypothesized to derive mostly from the=20 transformation of maturer neural cells such as astrocytes, = oligodendrocytes or=20 neuronal precursors.

However, in the early 1990s, following on from the = pioneering work=20 of Fernando Nottebohm's laboratory that showed the functional relevance = of adult=20 neurogenesis in songbirds14= ,=20 Reynolds and Weiss reported the isolation of a neural stem cell from the = adult=20 mouse brain15= .=20 A flurry of studies followed, which described persistent neurogenesis in = the=20 adult brains of rodents, tree shrews16= ,=20 monkeys17= =20 and humans18= =20 (reviewed in Ref. 19= ).=20 Therefore, neogenesis of mature cells persists throughout adult life = within=20 discrete brain regions, primarily in the dentate gyrus of the = hippocampus and in=20 the subventricular zone of the forebrain lateral ventricles (Fig= . 1).=20 This process is central to the generation and integration of new neurons = into=20 pre-existing neural circuitry, and is probably crucial for the = maintenance of=20 brain integrity, plasticity and optimal function20= .

= Figure=20 1 | The anatomy and functioning of the = subventricular=20 zone and subgranular zone in rodents and humans.
=

a | A sagittal section through the lateral = ventricle=20 that shows the larger area of adult neurogenesis; that is, the = subventricular=20 zone (SVZ). This region lines the lateral ventricles of the forebrain = and is=20 comprised of three main cell types. The multipotent, type B astrocytes, = that=20 have been identified as the bona fide SVZ stem = cells, give=20 rise to fast-cycling transiently proliferating precursor cells that are = called=20 type C precursors and that, in turn, generate mitotically active type A=20 neuroblasts. The type A cells, while dividing, migrate tangentially = towards the=20 olfactory bulbs where they integrate as new interneurons. b=20 | An additional adult neurogenetic region is found in the subgranular = zone=20 (SGZ), which is located within the dentate gyrus of the hippocampus. A = cellular=20 hierarchy, somewhat similar to that of the SVZ, is seen in the SGZ in = which the=20 true stem cell is probably the type B astrocyte, which produces the = intermediate=20 type D precursor that eventually gives rise to the type G granule = neurons. These=20 neurons integrate functionally into the granule cell layer. c | In the adult human brain, a population of SVZ = astrocytes that=20 is organized as a periventricular ribbon has been identified as = comprising=20 neural stem cells. In contrast to the rodent SVZ, no signs of tangential = neuronal chain migration were detected from the corresponding human = area. d | The germinal zone of the adult human hippocampus is = located=20 within the dentate gyrus. Neurogenesis in this region has been = demonstrated to=20 take place in adult humans. Parts a and b are reproduced with permission from Ref. 20= =A9=20 (2005) Annual Reviews. Parts c and d=20 are reproduced with permission from Ref. 26= =A9=20 (2005) Massachusetts Medical Society.


The main implication of continued adult neurogenesis is = the=20 presence of undifferentiated, mitotically active stem and progenitor = cells=20 within discrete regions of the mature brain. Like those that are found = in other=20 renewing tissues, these populations might function as a source of cells = for=20 transformation, giving rise to tumour stem cells.

The overall structure of the cell neogenetic process in = the adult=20 brain, its basic cellular compartments and the fundamental organization = of the=20 lineage hierarchy within neurogenetic areas are comparable to those of = other=20 renewing tissues (Fig= . 2).=20 The stem-cell compartment contains highly undifferentiated cells that = are=20 endowed with an extensive proliferative potential, and is responsible = for the=20 whole process of tissue cell homeostasis throughout the life of the = organism.=20 Stem cells often produce the entire range of mature cell types that are = found in=20 the tissue of origin (multipotency). Most importantly, they have = extensive=20 self-renewal capacity =97 that is, the ability to maintain their number = in adult=20 tissues at a steady level throughout life. Stem cells can accomplish=20 self-renewal by undergoing asymmetric divisions, by which a faithful = copy of the=20 mother cell, together with a maturer progenitor, is generated. The same = result=20 is achieved when, within a given stem-cell pool, equivalent numbers of=20 symmetrical cell cycles take place, yielding either two stem cells or = two=20 maturer progenitors21= .=20 Extensive self-renewal is often used to distinguish somatic stem cells = from=20 their immediate descendants, which constitute the transiently dividing=20 progenitor compartment and can only reproduce themselves in a limited = fashion.=20 These descendants eventually give rise to the terminally differentiated = elements=20 of the mature cell compartment. Disruption of the regulatory mechanisms = that=20 control self-renewal are probably involved in the genesis of = cancer-initiating=20 stem-like cells6, = 22= .

= Figure=20 2 | Hierarchical organization of the = functional=20 compartments in renewing tissues.
=

a | The stem-cell compartment (purple), early=20 transiently dividing progenitor compartment (orange), late transiently = dividing=20 progenitor compartment (red) and differentiated-cell compartment (green) = are=20 schematically described. Cells in the stem-cell and transiently dividing = progenitor compartments could be the target of the onco-transformation = that=20 leads to the formation of tumour stem cells. b | = The neural=20 precursors that make up similar functional compartments in the = neurogenetic=20 regions of the adult brain and that might be the source of brain tumour = stem=20 cells. c | The structure of the subventricular = zone,=20 showing how these precursors fit and are organized in the germinal=20 neuroepithelium of the largest neurogenetic region of the adult brain. = GABA,=20 -ami= nobutyric=20 acid; GFAP, glial fibrillary acid protein; HSA, heat-stable antigen; = MAP2,=20 microtubule-associated protein 2; NCAM1, neural cell adhesion molecule = 1; PSA,=20 polysialic acid; RMS, rostral migratory stream.


Neurogenesis in the = mature=20 CNS

The largest neurogenetic region in the adult mammalian = brain is=20 the subventricular zone, which is located between the lateral ventricle = and the=20 parenchyma of the striatum (Fig= .=20 1a). Despite previous controversies about their actual identity and = nature,=20 a subset of the subventricular zone cells that express the astroglial = marker=20 glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP)=20 have been identified as the putative adult neural stem cells in this=20 region23= .=20 These cells can reconstruct the entire neurogenetic structure when all = of the=20 other mitotically active cells have been ablated. Relatively quiescent, = with a=20 proposed cell-cycle time of 28 days, these astrocyte-like adult neural = stem=20 cells are called type B cells and represent a small subset of the total=20 astrocyte population in the subventricular zone23= .=20 Notably, they can be distinguished from mature astrocytes, particularly = those of=20 the mature brain parenchyma, as these do not seem to possess stem-cell=20 properties. In vivo, adult neural stem cells = generate=20 transiently dividing progenitor cells that are characterized by a = cell-cycle=20 time of about 12 hours24= .=20 These progenitors, which are called type C cells, retain multipotency = and give=20 rise to maturer transiently dividing progenitors that are restricted to = neurons=20 and are called type A cells. These type A cells migrate in bundles = through the=20 rostral extension of the subventricular zone into the olfactory bulb, = where they=20 integrate as new interneurons in the cortical layers (Fig= .=20 1a).

Interestingly, the subventricular zone seems to be = present in the=20 human adult brain25= ,=20 26= ,=20 27= .=20 However, in humans, newly generated cells do not migrate in bundles = towards the=20 olfactory bulb, but instead leave the periventricular region as single = cells,=20 the destination of which remains to be identified25= ,=20 27= =20 (Fig= .=20 1c).

There is a similar hierarchical neurogenetic system in = the=20 subgranular zone of rodents28= ,=20 29= =20 (Fig= .=20 1b) and humans18= ,=20 30= =20 (Fig= .=20 1d). The subgranular zone is located between the hippocampal = granular layer=20 and the hilus, and contains astrocytes that are tightly associated with = blood=20 vessels to form foci of proliferating cells. Similar to their=20 subventricular-zone equivalents, subgranular-zone astrocytes operate as = neural=20 stem cells and give rise to transiently amplifying precursors, which are = called=20 type D cells, from which new neuronal precursors are generated that = migrate a=20 short distance to functionally integrate into the granule-cell layer = (reviewed=20 in Ref. 20= ).

The persistence of germinal regions and the presence of = stem cells=20 and transiently dividing progenitor compartments in the adult CNS has = important=20 conceptual and practical implications, and reinforces the idea that = mature=20 neural cells are not the only possible source of tumour cells in the = adult=20 mammalian brain.

Identifying = neural stem=20 cells and tumour stem cells

A valuable feature of adult neural stem cells is that = they are=20 readily and extensively expandable when placed in culture and stimulated = with=20 the appropriate growth factors, such as epidermal growth factor (EGF)15= ,=20 23= ,=20 31= =20 and fibroblast growth factor 2 (FGF2)32= ,=20 33= .=20 This culture condition allows adult neural stem cells to be isolated, = and their=20 functional characteristics and developmental potential to be = investigated. This=20 was demonstrated by Reynolds and Weiss in 1992 who isolated a small = population=20 of cells (<0.1% of total cells) from the adult striatum that could=20 proliferate and generate multipotent clones of cells =97 neurospheres = =97 in vitro15= .

This neurosphere approach represents a serum-free, = selective=20 culture system in which most differentiating or differentiated cells = rapidly=20 die, whereas neural stem cells respond to mitogens, divide and form = neurospheres=20 that can be dissociated and re-plated to generate secondary spheres. = This=20 process can be repeated by serial subculturing, which results in an = exponential=20 increase in the total number of cells and neurospheres that are = generated34= =20 (Fig= .=20 3). It is worth emphasizing that the neural stem-cell content in = this system=20 is variable and depends on the stage of the culture. The neural = stem-cell titre=20 is actually extremely high (although it never reaches absolute purity) = soon=20 after the dissociation and re-plating (which selects against cells other = than=20 neural stem cells), but tends to decline progressively until the next=20 subculturing step is carried out. This is due to the production of = maturer=20 precursors that occurs spontaneously during cell proliferation and = neurosphere=20 formation. Notably, on mitogen removal, the progeny of the=20 growth-factor-responsive cells can be differentiated into neurons, = astrocytes=20 and oligodendrocytes. Under these conditions, growth-factor-responsive = neural=20 stem cells that are derived from the embryonic and adult CNS can be = passaged and=20 expanded indefinitely with little change in their growth or = differentiation=20 characteristics32= ,=20 33= ,=20 35= ,=20 36= .=20 These results indicate that adult neural stem cells possess the = fundamental=20 stem-cell criteria of self-renewal, multipotency and the generation of = many=20 progeny15= ,=20 33= ,=20 37= ,=20 38= ,=20 39= .

= Figure=20 3 | Isolation and perpetuation of brain = tumour stem=20 cells in culture.
=

The neurosphere assay is a defined serum-free culture system that = allows the=20 isolation and propagation of CNS-derived stem cells. Adult precursors = are=20 dissociated and plated in a liquid growth medium that contains the = stem-cell=20 mitogens epidermal growth factor and/or fibroblast growth factor 2. = Because of=20 the lack of serum and the low plating density, most cells die, except = those that=20 divide in response to the stem-cell mitogens. The = growth-factor-responsive cells=20 proliferate to form floating clusters of cells that are referred to as=20 neurospheres. These can be further dissociated into a single-cell = suspension and=20 then re-plated in fresh medium to produce secondary neurospheres. The = process=20 can be repeated, resulting in a geometric expansion in the number of = cells that=20 are generated at each passage. Upon mitogen removal, the progeny of the=20 proliferating precursors can be differentiated into neurons, astrocytes = and=20 oligodendrocytes, which are the three primary cell types that are found = in the=20 adult mammalian CNS. Under these conditions, the = growth-factor-responsive=20 precursors can be expanded indefinitely with little change in their = growth or=20 differentiation characteristics. These results indicate the existence of = an=20 adult neural stem cell as these cells possess the fundamental stem-cell = features=20 of extensive self-renewal, generation of many progeny and the ability to = give=20 rise to the primary cell types of the tissue from which they were = obtained.


The neurosphere assay15= =20 is a simple and robust assay for the isolation, expansion and = identification of=20 neural stem cells (Fig= . 3),=20 and has become the method of choice to study potential expanded neural = stem-cell=20 populations in vitro. Cells with stem-cell = characteristics=20 in culture have subsequently been found to line the entire mouse = ventricular=20 neuroaxis40= ,=20 41= ,=20 to be present in the human fetal and adult CNS25= ,=20 36= ,=20 42= ,=20 43= ,=20 and to participate in adult rodent neurogenesis44= ,=20 45= ,=20 46= ,=20 47= ,=20 48= .=20 Recently, the conditions of the neurosphere assay have been used to = isolate=20 other types of candidate stem cell from various tissues, including = skin49= ,=20 heart50= =20 and breast51= ,=20 and, significantly, to identify brain tumour stem cells.

Brain tumour stem cells. The = identification and=20 isolation of brain tumour stem cells remains a difficult and confusing = issue, as=20 the term 'brain tumour stem cell' is often applied to cells that have = been=20 identified by different methods and criteria, and that have varying=20 characteristics. Although this is probably a consequence of the = relatively=20 recent identification of these cells, it also reflects the current state = of flux=20 in neurobiology in attempting to provide a general definition of neural = stem=20 cells and to identify neural stem-cell-specific markers. The most widely = used=20 neural lineage markers often label intracellular antigens20= ,=20 and adult neural stem-cell-specific antigens are still being identified. = This=20 shortcoming hinders the enrichment and purification of adult neural stem = cells=20 by flow cytometry. The situation is now improving with the = identification of=20 cell-surface antigens and methods that are used to identify putative = neural stem=20 cells in rodents52= ,=20 53= ,=20 54= =20 and humans43= =20 and that might eventually be used to purify brain tumour stem = cells55= .=20 However, despite the modifications that cell culturing might bring about = in=20 tumour stem cells, to date all of the reports that describe the = isolation and=20 characterization of putative brain tumour stem cells have used the = neurosphere=20 assay (in some form) to help confirm the existence of a stem-cell=20 population.

The first evidence of the existence of cells with = stem-like=20 characteristics in human brain tumours was reported by Steindler and=20 colleagues56= ,=20 who isolated clonogenic, neurosphere-forming precursors from = post-surgery=20 specimens of human glioblastoma multiforme. These stem-like cells = expressed both=20 neuronal and astroglial markers on differentiation, together with = several key=20 determinants of neural stem-cell fate. Later, two independent groups = extended=20 these findings, showing that both glioblastoma multiforme and = medulloblastoma=20 contain neurosphere-forming cells that can give rise to neuronal and=20 astroglial-like cells57= ,=20 58= .=20 Medulloblastoma cells were also shown to express many genes that are=20 characteristic of neural stem cells, including proteins such as SOX2,=20 BMI1=20 and Musash= i=20 1, and to give rise to dysplastic tissue following intracerebral=20 transplantation58= .

The relevance of these findings is manifold. First, they = confirm=20 that different brain tumours contain transformed, undifferentiated = neural=20 precursors that respond to the same mitogens that activate adult neural = stem=20 cells. Second, they indicate that tumour stem-like cells possess some of = the=20 molecular features of neural stem cells. Third, they show that CD133, a = 120 kDa=20 cell-surface protein that is a marker of normal human neural = precursors43= ,=20 59= ,=20 60= ,=20 can be used for the enrichment of tumour stem-like cells from brain=20 tumours55= ,=20 57= .

However, these observations do not show whether the = stem-like=20 cells that are derived from these tumours have the identifying = characteristics=20 of true stem cells (that is, long-term self-renewal, multipotency and = generation=20 of many progeny), and, most importantly, whether they have = cancer-initiating=20 capacity as would be expected of brain tumour stem cells.

By applying the same conditions that are used for the = isolation of=20 human neural stem cells, we were able to isolate clonogenic, = neurosphere-forming=20 progenitors from adult human glioblastoma multiforme61= .=20 These cells were isolated at a frequency comparable to that of the=20 CD133+ cells that were previously isolated from brain = tumours55= ,=20 57= ,=20 and they had the key in vitro stem-cell = characteristics of=20 extensive self-renewal, multipotency and generation of many progeny. = Most=20 importantly, when clonally derived, they could initiate new tumours when = transplanted into the striatum of adult immunodeficient mice61= .=20 These tumours showed the classic in vivo features = of human=20 glioblastoma multiforme, having extensive migratory and infiltrative = capacity,=20 which indicated that the in vitro defined brain = tumour stem=20 cells could recapitulate the in vivo histological = features=20 of glioblastoma multiforme. In addition, stem-like cells could be = re-isolated=20 from these tumours and could re-establish secondary stem-cell lines with = the=20 same functional characteristics as the parental cell lines. Furthermore, = following intracranial transplantation, these secondary brain tumour = cells gave=20 rise to new tumours, which demonstrated their self-renewal in=20 vivo.

As this population of cells has the cardinal properties = of stem=20 cells, it seems likely that they are brain tumour stem cells61= .=20 Recently, a report from the Dirks group has described the presence of = similar,=20 in vivo self-renewing, CD133+ = cancer-initiating=20 precursors in short-term neurosphere cultures that had been established = from=20 human glioblastoma multiforme and medulloblastoma55= .=20 Although it remains unclear which subset of the CD133+ = precursor pool=20 can initiate tumour formation in vivo, the=20 CD133- fraction was shown to lack any tumorigenic capacity. = Despite=20 the fact that the actual identity of the true tumour-initiating stem = cells in=20 both neurosphere cultures and AC133+ populations remains to = be=20 established conclusively, these findings clearly support the existence = of brain=20 tumour stem cells in human glioblastoma multiforme.

This field is expanding rapidly and new studies62= ,=20 63= =20 are corroborating the view that the cancer-initiating cells in = glioblastoma=20 multiforme and medulloblastoma are brain tumour stem cells. = Interestingly, this=20 concept has now been extended to include other brain tumours, such as=20 ependymomas64= .=20 It has been reported that multipotent CD133+ cells, which = show=20 features of radial glia =97 the progenitors that are known to give rise = to both=20 ependymal cells and adult neural stem cells in the postnatal = subventricular=20 zone65= =20 =97 can be cultured from human ependymomas using the neurosphere = assay64= .

Several crucial considerations arise from these studies. = The=20 definition of brain tumour stem cells is often loosely applied, such = that it=20 includes cells of unknown or limited self-renewal and differentiation = potential.=20 Worryingly, the term might be applied to candidate cells in the absence = of any=20 reported cancer-initiating capability. This lack of rigour in the=20 characterization of a putative brain tumour stem cell confuses the field = as it=20 groups cells with bona fide tumour stem-cell = features=20 together with those that do not satisfy these criteria. The undesired=20 consequence of this situation is the allocation of divergent and = contradictory=20 properties to cells with different natures and identities that are then = all=20 called brain tumour stem cells.

We propose that the term brain tumour stem cell be = applied only to=20 cells with the cardinal features that are listed in Box= 3.=20 The development of a rigorous definition and its application across the = field=20 would standardize and guide future work, allowing groups to compare and = contrast=20 their findings on the basis of reasonable and generally accepted = criteria.

Box= 3 |=20 Definition of brain tumour stem cells
  • Ful= l box=20

The origin of brain tumour stem cells. = Different=20 interpretations have been proposed about the nature of the neural cell = type that=20 is targeted by transformation and results in subsequent tumorigenesis. = To date,=20 evidence indicates that brain tumours might derive from the = transformation of=20 undifferentiated precursor cells, which are found not only in germinal = regions=20 of the developing and early-postnatal CNS =97 such as those that are = involved in=20 the genesis of the cerebellar external granular layer from which = medulloblastoma=20 develops66= =20 =97 but also in areas of the mature brain, in which neurogenesis = persists=20 throughout adulthood. Amongst these, the subventricular zone emerges as = the most=20 likely source of gliomas26= .=20 Many tumours develop near this region and exposure to oncogenic viruses = or=20 administration of carcinogens results in the preferential formation of = tumours=20 in germinal regions as opposed to the non-proliferative brain = parenchyma26= .=20 Tumours arise with much greater frequency when carcinogens are = administered in=20 the subventricular zone rather than in the peripheral cortex67= .=20 This is further supported by the finding that tumours that are found in = the=20 white matter of dogs that have been exposed to avian sarcoma virus early = in=20 postnatal life originate in the subventricular zone and subsequently = migrate to=20 their final location68= .

Recently, Parada and colleagues established a = double-mutant mouse=20 in which they combined mutations in tumour suppressor p53 (Trp53) and the neural-specific neurofibromatosis = type 1 gene=20 (Nf1), which activates Ras and therefore increases = the=20 formation of astrocytomas in humans. They suggested that some of the=20 astrocytoma-like lesions that they observed developed within the = subventricular=20 zone69= .=20 Similarly, a series of classic studies proposed that deletion of tumour=20 suppressors and/or activation of oncogenes, such as Ras and Akt, in=20 undifferentiated nestin-expressing=20 cells results in a higher frequency of tumour formation than such=20 alterations in GFAP-expressing astrocytes70= ,=20 71= .=20 Likewise, overexpression of platelet-derived growth factor- (PDGF)= =20 in either nestin-expressing progenitors or GFAP-expressing astrocytes = caused a=20 significant increase in the rate of glioma formation, with the highest = frequency=20 observed following nestin-directed targeting72= .=20 However, mature astroglia have also been shown to be more susceptible to = oncogenic transformation when a more immature phenotype is targeted. The = combined loss of the CDKN2A locus (which encodes the INK4a and ARF = tumour=20 suppressors) and the expression of constitutively active EGF receptor = (EGFR)=20 in mature astrocytes led to the formation of glioma-like lesions = following=20 intracranial transplantation73= .

However, the observation that, in patients, the site of = glioma=20 origin is often distinct from the site where the tumour eventually = develops=20 might be explained by the hypothesis that a brain tumour stem cell, = through=20 asymmetric divisions, generates another brain tumour stem cell that = remains=20 within the subventricular zone, and a progenitor cell that migrates away = to give=20 rise to the tumour mass74= .

In the same way, persistence of neurogenesis in the = hippocampus=20 throughout life entails the persistence of undifferentiated, mitotic = neural=20 precursors within this area. As these precursors are a probable target = of=20 tumorigenic transformation20= ,=20 it remains unclear why there is currently no clear evidence of increased = tumour=20 frequency in the regions that are adjacent to the hippocampus. A = possible=20 explanation can be found in the recent observation that the actual = neural stem=20 cells that give rise to subgranular-zone neurons might reside outside = the=20 subgranular zone itself75= ,=20 76= .

These studies provide compelling evidence that = mitotically active=20 precursors are the most likely source of many brain tumours; however, = the=20 specific identity of these cells within the neurogenetic regions of the = brain=20 remains unresolved. It has been suggested that between four and seven=20 independent mutations must occur within a normal somatic cell before a = cancerous=20 phenotype results5.=20 Some of these alterations might be acquired early in development, = predisposing=20 certain adult cells to cancer77= .=20 Nonetheless, oncogenic mutations are rare, stochastic events, that are = thought=20 to accumulate over a considerable period of time. Transiently dividing=20 progenitors exist only briefly before differentiating into cells that = are often=20 quiescent or die because of normal turnover or damage. Therefore, = mutagenic=20 events might not have the opportunity to accumulate in transiently = dividing=20 progenitors and their terminally differentiated progeny, as time spent = in the=20 transformation-prone phase is short and mutated cells might be discarded = through=20 differentiation and normal cell loss. Conversely, somatic stem cells are = perennial cells with a significant proliferation and self-renewal = potential that=20 lasts the lifetime of the animal, making them a preferential target for=20 tumorigenesis. It is thought that this might be the case in acute = myeloid=20 leukaemia and several solid-tissue malignancies78= .=20 However, as the transiently dividing progenitors are the immediate = descendants=20 of somatic stem cells, which will pass down their mutations, it is = arguable that=20 the rapidly and transiently dividing cells could accumulate additional=20 tumour-promoting events, eventually leading to the transformation of = these cells=20 into cells with the properties of tumour stem cells (Fig= .=20 2).

The role of transiently dividing progenitors (type C = cells) as the=20 possible source of brain tumour stem cells is supported by the finding = that in=20 the adult subventricular zone these progenitors express EGFR31= .=20 The activity of this receptor is altered in more than 50% of human=20 gliomas79= =20 and its constitutive activation can cause glioma formation in the = CNS73= .=20 Strikingly, in vivo exposure to EGFR ligands, = such as=20 transforming growth factor-=20 (TGF= ) or=20 EGF31= ,=20 80= ,=20 produces the formation of tumour-like structures that protrude into the=20 ventricle, and an aberrant and invasive pattern of neural cell = proliferation.=20 This leads to many progeny being displaced, throughout the CNS = parenchyma, at=20 significant distances away from the periventricular region80= ,=20 81= .=20 In vitro, transiently dividing progenitors that = are derived=20 from the subventricular-zone population can revert to a stem-cell-like = phenotype=20 as they form neurospheres and show some proliferative ability. This = supports the=20 potential of this population to be a target for further oncogenic=20 transformation31= .

Intuitively, given the lack of an intrinsic self-renewal = capacity=20 and the ephemeral nature of transiently dividing progenitors, this = indicates=20 that the frequency with which they give rise to tumour stem cells is = much lower=20 than that of somatic stem cells, which retain a proliferative capacity=20 throughout the lifetime of an animal. But this might not be the case =97 = the size=20 of the transiently dividing progenitor compartment is at least one order = of=20 magnitude larger than that of the somatic stem-cell compartment (Fig= . 2),=20 which increases the overall probability of cell transformation within = the former=20 population. This is particularly true in complex tissues that contain = many=20 mature cell types, as the dimensions of the transiently dividing = progenitor=20 compartment =97 and therefore the size of the pool of mitotically active = cells =97=20 increase with the number of terminally differentiated cell lineages that = are=20 generated in a given tissue82= .=20 Most importantly, the de-differentiation of transiently dividing = progenitors=20 into somatic stem cells has been shown to occur under physiological = conditions,=20 both in vivo and in vitro, = without the=20 need for transformation31= ,=20 83= .=20 Furthermore, although somatic stem cells have a lifelong proliferation=20 potential, the global number of divisions that they undergo might not be = any=20 greater than that of the transiently dividing progenitor population, = which=20 expresses its full proliferative potential over a relatively short time. = This=20 concept is strengthened by the observation that forced cycling of = haematopoietic=20 stem cells, either through serial transplantation or genetic disruption = of key=20 negative cell-cycle regulators, affects the functional integrity of stem = cells=20 over time. This indicates that, similar to transiently dividing = progenitors, the=20 total number of divisions that is allowed for somatic stem cells might = be=20 limited84= ,=20 85= .

Additional factors decrease the actual frequency at = which somatic=20 stem cells undergo transformation. For instance, Cairns proposed that = somatic=20 stem cells retain their original, or template, DNA strands at each = cycle,=20 thereby protecting themselves effectively against DNA-replication = errors86= .=20 This immortal-strand hypothesis, as it has become known, has now found=20 experimental support in studies of small-intestinal and neural stem = cells87= ,=20 88= .

Therefore, it seems plausible that the anatomical origin = of brain=20 tumour stem cells might be in regions of the CNS that have the greatest = degree=20 of cell proliferation, such as the subventricular zone. The = transformation of=20 normal somatic stem cells or of their progeny, the transiently dividing = cells,=20 are equally conceivable hypotheses for the cellular origin of brain = tumour stem=20 cells within these proliferative zones (Fig= .=20 4).

= Figure=20 4 | Neurogenetic compartments as = developmental=20 'beltways'.
=

Brain tumour stem cells (BTSCs), despite the fact that they have = stem-cell=20 properties, might be derived from many of the mostly undifferentiated = cells that=20 are found in the neurogenetic areas of the adult brain. During this = process,=20 sequential cell lineages are generated that progressively acquire = properties of=20 greater differentiation. Therefore, cells in the neurogenetic process = can be=20 envisioned as rolling along a developmental 'beltway'. They start as = neural stem=20 cells (NSCs), which give rise to progressively maturer, transiently = dividing=20 progenitors (T1 and T2) until they leave the beltway (terminally = differentiate;=20 DIFF) to become either functional mature neurons or other cells. = Throughout this=20 process and at different stages of differentiation mistakes can occur, = and cells=20 on the beltway can enter some of the 'forbidden' beltway exits that, = regardless=20 of where they start, all lead to the same result: the formation of = BTSCs. The=20 widths of the horizontal and vertical arms that take cells from the = beltway to=20 their final BTSC fate become progressively narrower closer to the exit = to the=20 compartment of differentiated cells. This represents the fact that the = more=20 mature a cell is, the less likely it will turn into a BTSC.


Although we think that brain tumour stem cells are best = defined on=20 the basis of functional competence rather than on the identity of the = cell that=20 underwent the original oncogenic transformation, the need to identify = accurately=20 the cellular origin of such stem cells is not superfluous. In fact, = brain tumour=20 stem cells are likely to retain many of their parental = characteristics55= ,=20 57= ,=20 58= ,=20 61= ,=20 63= .=20 As adult neural stem cells and neural transiently dividing progenitors = have=20 specific functional, molecular and antigenic attributes (Fig= . 2),=20 these might be used to develop better classification and diagnostic = assays, as=20 heterogeneity exceeds the sensitivity of the current classification=20 system89= .=20 These differential antigenic and molecular attributes might also be = exploited to=20 devise cell-enrichment procedures to establish nearly pure preparations = of=20 tumour-initiating cells, which might enable the identification of a more = specific pathway to target for brain tumour therapy and the devising of=20 exclusive immunotherapy approaches. Furthermore, they might lead to a = more=20 reliable identification of tumour-initiating stem cells and the = development of=20 novel and accurate assays that enable the number of true tumour stem = cells in=20 different brain tumours, or in the same brain tumour type from different = patients, to be identified. The experimental and clinical benefits of = these=20 findings could be considerable. It is also imperative to define the = functional,=20 regulatory, molecular and antigenic features that distinguish normal = from tumour=20 stem cells. This will allow us to devise therapeutic strategies that=20 specifically target the tumour population, but leave normal stem and = precursor=20 cells unharmed.

Regulation of neural stem-cell division: insights = into=20 tumour stem-cell biology. The finding that adult germinal, = neural=20 precursors might provide the origin of brain tumour stem cells indicates = the=20 presence of common regulatory pathways. There is evidence that the same = key=20 mechanisms that control the activity of normal neurogenetic progenitors = are=20 altered in brain tumours. As this topic has recently been covered in a = series of=20 excellent articles26= ,=20 here we provide only a brief overview of the most relevant pathways.

EGFR expression is upregulated during tumour formation, = is=20 correlated with malignancy and response to treatment79= ,=20 and is considered a reliable marker for primary glioblastoma = multiforme1.=20 Similarly, FGFs, which have been shown to regulate neural stem-cell=20 proliferation44= ,=20 32= =20 and cell-fate commitment90= ,=20 have been proposed as glioma-promoting autocrine factors that are = involved in=20 the proliferation of tumour cells91= =20 and the induction of angiogenesis92= .

Likewise, overexpression of Notch receptors and their = ligands=20 Delta-like 1 (DLK1)=20 and Jagged 1 (JAG1)=20 correlates with the proliferative capacity of human glioma cells93= .=20 Therefore, Notch has been suggested to function as a positive effector = of=20 self-renewal in adult neural stem cells94= ,=20 95= .

Another gene that has recently been implicated in the = regulation=20 of self-renewal of normal neural stem cells96= ,=20 97= =20 and in CNS tumorigenesis98= =20 is BMI1. This belongs to the Polycomb group of genes and has been shown = to=20 positively regulate cell proliferation and self-renewal through = repression of=20 the tumour suppressors INK4a and ARF96= .=20 Intriguingly, BMI1 expression is significantly increased in human=20 medulloblastomas, directly linking the deregulation of BMI1-dependent=20 self-renewal to tumour development98= .

Similarly, Sonic Hedgehog (SHH)=20 and its downstream effectors glioma-associated oncogene homologue 1 (GLI1),=20 GLI2=20 and GLI3=20 have been shown to specifically regulate neurogenesis and self-renewal = within=20 the external granular layer of the early postnatal cerebellum and to = control=20 precursor proliferation in the adult subventricular zone99= .=20 Therefore, mutations in this pathway are directly implicated in the = genesis of=20 medulloblastoma1= 00,=20 1= 01.

Other genes, the expression of which links normal = regulation of=20 neural stem cells to aberrant function in brain tumours, include PTEN=20 and elements of the canonical Wnt=96-cate= nin=20 signalling pathway1= 02,=20 1= 03.=20 PTEN is a tumour suppressor with an important function in the control of = proliferation of neural stem cells and progenitor cells in=20 vivo and in vitro1= 04.=20 It has also been shown to control migration in the adult subventricular=20 zone1= 05.=20 Importantly, PTEN is often inactivated in=20 glioblastomas66= ,=20 1= 06=20 and, as a result, maintenance of its expression has been closely = associated with=20 a favourable prognosis in patients with glioblastoma multiforme79= .

Finally, the Wnt=96-cate= nin=20 pathway has recently been implicated in the regulation of adult=20 neurogenesis1= 07,=20 1= 08.=20 Although a direct correlation between the deregulation of the Wnt = regulatory=20 system has been documented in the pathogenesis of = medulloblastomas1= 09,=20 evidence for its involvement in gliomagenesis is less obvious. However,=20 interfering with Wnt signalling through the ectopic expression of = soluble Wnt=20 modulators such as the secreted Frizzled-related proteins (sFRPs) has = been shown=20 to promote the growth of malignant glioma cells while inhibiting their = invasive=20 ability1= 10.

Perspectives

A new system for drug/target discovery and=20 validation. The hallmarks of tumour cells are exacerbated = proliferation=20 and aberrant self-renewal, which indicates that cells from CNS cancers = could be=20 used to establish brain tumour stem-cell lines from adult human = specimens. This=20 possibility is true for brain tumour stem cells from glioblastoma = multiforme=20 and, to a much lesser extent, from medulloblastoma61= ,=20 and it has considerable practical implications. Brain tumour stem cells, = even at=20 the single-cell level, have the genetic information that is required to = generate=20 a faithful phenocopy of the original tumour from which they are = derived55= ,=20 61= .=20 The increasing number of copies of the original brain tumour stem cells = that are=20 produced during serial subculturing generates a renewable and stable = source of=20 cancer-initiating cells that retain patient-specific features, such as = growth=20 characteristics, an aberrant differentiation phenotype and a specific = molecular=20 fingerprint61= .=20 These personalized brain tumour stem-cell lines can be used both as a = means to=20 identify novel molecular markers and as a source of material for=20 patient-specific drug-screening protocols. We predict that these brain = tumour=20 stem-cell-based assays will result in a more meaningful and predictive = model of=20 the actual therapy responsiveness of brain tumours than the standard = glioma cell=20 lines that are currently available.

A new target. The discovery of putative = brain tumour=20 stem cells identifies a new cellular target that might be amenable to = novel or=20 traditional treatments.

One feature that contributes to the ability of a stem = cell to=20 survive throughout the lifespan of an animal is its inherent resistance = to drugs=20 and toxins. A peculiarity of many stem-cell populations is their = relatively high=20 expression of ATP-binding cassette (ABC) drug transporters, which can = protect=20 cells from cytotoxic agents1= 11.=20 Haematopoietic stem cells have been isolated on the basis of their = expression of=20 these transporters and their ability to efflux the fluorescent dye = Hoechst=20 33342, which give them a unique profile, referred to as the side = population,=20 when analysed by flow cytometry. Side-population cells have also been = isolated=20 from the CNS54= .=20 Although somatic and tumour stem cells can be identified within the side = population, not all of the stem-cell population is contained within this = group,=20 nor does the side population contain a pure stem-cell population, = therefore=20 negating the use of this technique as a method to purify tumour stem = cells.=20 However, the presence of drug-resistance genes in the tumour population = and=20 their non-selective expression in a putative tumour stem-cell population = indicates the hypothetical possibility that drug resistance and, in = particular,=20 tumour recurrence might be related to the inability of cytotoxic = compounds to=20 eliminate the tumour-initiating cells. The next generation of = chemotherapy=20 agents might be a combination of chemosensitizers and cytotoxic agents = that=20 alters ABC-transporter activity, leading to better clinical = outcomes1= 11.

Normal stem cells to target tumour stem = cells? A=20 particularly innovative approach indicates that normal neural stem cells = can be=20 used to target and deliver molecules to CNS tumours1= 12.=20 Endogenous neural stem cells1= 13,=20 as well as neural stem cells that have been engineered to secrete = interleukin 4=20 (IL-4)1= 14,=20 IL-12<= /A>=20 (Ref. 1= 15)=20 or a fragment of metalloproteinase-2 called PEX1= 16,=20 can produce tumour regression and increase survival in experimental = intracranial=20 gliomas. Similarly, immortalized neural stem cells that were placed near = the=20 tumour or at a distant site through intravascular delivery could migrate = towards=20 and integrate with the previously implanted tumour cells1= 17.=20 The transplanted neural stem cells surrounded the expanding tumour mass, = even=20 seeking out and attaching to the infiltrating tumour cells. Furthermore, = migratory, tumour-seeking neural stem cells could be genetically = engineered to=20 deliver a therapeutically relevant molecule. This intriguing approach = has been=20 confirmed with other neural precursors1= 18,=20 1= 19=20 and the tropism of these cells for glioblastoma multiforme cells has = been shown=20 to be dependent on the vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF)=20 that is secreted by these cells1= 20=20 and on their expression of the chemokine receptor CXCR4<= /A>=20 (Ref. 1= 21).=20 It should be noted that the strategy of using neural stem cells and = progenitor=20 cells as 'Trojan horses' with anti-glioma homing capacity has, to date, = only=20 been shown using experimentally implanted cell lines and that the same=20 phenomenon ought also to be demonstrated with tumours that arise = spontaneously=20 in the brain. This notwithstanding, this innovative approach might prove = useful=20 not only for the site-specific delivery of cytotoxic agents or virally = mediated=20 genetic elements, but also for the widespread release of molecules that = regulate=20 the proliferation, differentiation and migration of the tumour stem = cells.

Conclusions

The discovery that brain tumours, particularly = glioblastoma=20 multiforme, contain tumour-founding cells with the defining features of = neural=20 stem cells strongly indicates that immature precursors within = neurogenetic areas=20 represent the cellular origin of brain tumour stem cells. The latter = ought not=20 to be exclusively viewed as the result of transformation of normal = neural stem=20 cells, as our knowledge of the mechanisms that regulate adult = neurogenesis=20 indicates that it is equally likely that brain tumour stem cells might = derive=20 from transiently dividing progenitors. According to this view, and while = we=20 await the identification of specific brain tumour stem-cell-lineage = antigens, it=20 seems reasonable to define brain tumour stem cells as cancer-initiating=20 precursors that show defining stem-cell properties and, principally, a = long-term=20 capacity for self-renewal in vitro or in=20 vivo. The tumours that are generated from these cells must be a = faithful,=20 possibly patient-specific, phenocopy of the original neoplasia (Box= 3).=20 The capacity to culture brain tumour stem cells in = vitro=20 might give us an opportunity to devise new and more-specific therapeutic = approaches to target incurable brain tumours.

There is hope that the identification of brain tumour = stem cells=20 as possibly the long-sought culprit in brain cancers might revolutionize = the way=20 that we approach brain tumour physiology, diagnosis and = therapy.

To= p of page

Acknowledgements

We are grateful to S. Piccirillo for valuable help with = the=20 preparation of this manuscript and to R. Rietze and M. De Palma for = their useful=20 suggestions and comments.

Competing interests statement

The authors declare = competing=20 financial interests.

To= p of page

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To= p of page

Author affiliations

  1. Department of Biotechnology and Biosciences, University of = Milan=20 Bicocca, Milan 20126, Italy.
  2. Stem Cell Research Institute, DIBIT, San Raffaele = Scientific=20 Institute, Via Olgettina 58, Milan 20132, Italy.
  3. University of Queensland, Brisbane 4072, = Australia.

Correspondence to: Angelo L. Vescovi1=20 Email: vescovi@tin.it

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2px } DIV.reg-rec UL A.bookmark { BACKGROUND: url(/reviews/images/icons/bookmark.gif) no-repeat 0px 0px; = PADDING-BOTTOM: 1px; PADDING-TOP: 1px } * HTML DIV.reg-rec UL A.japanese { BACKGROUND: url(/reviews/images/icons/japanese.gif) no-repeat 0px 3px } DIV.reg-rec UL A.japanese { BACKGROUND: url(/reviews/images/icons/japanese.gif) no-repeat 0px 1px; = PADDING-BOTTOM: 1px; PADDING-TOP: 1px } .box#natjob { PADDING-RIGHT: 6px; PADDING-LEFT: 6px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 6px; MARGIN: 0px = 0px 10px; COLOR: #000; PADDING-TOP: 6px } .box#natjob H2.natjob { BORDER-TOP-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-RIGHT: 7px; PADDING-LEFT: 7px; = BORDER-LEFT-WIDTH: 0px; FONT-SIZE: 120%; BORDER-BOTTOM-WIDTH: 0px; = PADDING-BOTTOM: 5px; MARGIN: 0px 0px 1em; PADDING-TOP: 5px; FONT-FAMILY: = inherit; BORDER-RIGHT-WIDTH: 0px } .box#natjob H2.natjob SPAN.first { TEXT-TRANSFORM: lowercase; FONT-FAMILY: Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, = sans-serif } .box#natjob H2.natjob SPAN.second { TEXT-TRANSFORM: lowercase; FONT-FAMILY: Verdana, Arial, 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110%; BACKGROUND-IMAGE: none; = BORDER-BOTTOM-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 5px; MARGIN: 0px; PADDING-TOP: = 5px; LIST-STYLE-TYPE: none; BACKGROUND-COLOR: transparent; = BORDER-RIGHT-WIDTH: 0px } .box#natjob DIV.natjobmore A:link { PADDING-RIGHT: 0px; DISPLAY: inline; PADDING-LEFT: 15px; FONT-SIZE: = 100%; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px; MARGIN: 0px; PADDING-TOP: 0px; = TEXT-DECORATION: none } .box#natjob DIV.natjobmore A:visited { PADDING-RIGHT: 0px; DISPLAY: inline; PADDING-LEFT: 15px; FONT-SIZE: = 100%; PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px; MARGIN: 0px; PADDING-TOP: 0px; = TEXT-DECORATION: none } .box#natjob DIV.natjobmore A:hover { TEXT-DECORATION: underline } .box#natjob DIV.natjobmore A:focus { TEXT-DECORATION: underline } .box#natprod { PADDING-RIGHT: 6px; PADDING-LEFT: 6px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 6px; MARGIN: 0px = 0px 10px; COLOR: #000; PADDING-TOP: 6px } .box#natprod H2.natprod { BORDER-TOP-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-RIGHT: 7px; PADDING-LEFT: 7px; = BORDER-LEFT-WIDTH: 0px; FONT-SIZE: 120%; BORDER-BOTTOM-WIDTH: 0px; = 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