From: Subject: Drosophila neuroblast asymmetric divisions: cell cycle regulators, asymmetric protein localization, and tumorigenesis -- Chia et al. 180 (2): 267 -- The Journal of Cell Biology Date: Thu, 31 Jan 2008 08:55:10 +0100 MIME-Version: 1.0 Content-Type: multipart/related; type="text/html"; boundary="----=_NextPart_000_0000_01C863E6.FC53AFF0" X-MimeOLE: Produced By Microsoft MimeOLE V6.00.2900.3198 This is a multi-part message in MIME format. ------=_NextPart_000_0000_01C863E6.FC53AFF0 Content-Type: text/html; charset="Windows-1252" Content-Transfer-Encoding: quoted-printable Content-Location: http://www.jcb.org/cgi/content/full/180/2/267?ijkey=18a30a68c5f07b40c37a4ec4c3ca72464362e3b7 Drosophila neuroblast asymmetric divisions: cell = cycle regulators, asymmetric protein localization, and tumorigenesis -- = Chia et al. 180 (2): 267 -- The Journal of Cell Biology
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Published online 21 January=20 2008
doi:10.1083/jcb.200708159
The Journal of Cell = Biology, Vol.=20 180, No. 2, 267-272
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Drosophila neuroblast=20 asymmetric divisions: cell cycle regulators, asymmetric protein = localization,=20 and tumorigenesis

William=20 Chia1,2, W. Gregory=20 Somers1, and Hongyan Wang3 =

1 Temasek Life = Sciences=20 Laboratory and 2 Department of Biological Sciences, National=20 University of Singapore, Singapore 1176043 Duke-NUS Graduate = Medical=20 School, Singapore 169547

Correspondence to William Chia: = wchia{at}tll.org.sg

Over the past decade, many of the key = components of the=20 genetic machinery that regulate the asymmetric division of=20 Drosophila melanogaster neural progenitors, = neuroblasts, have=20 been identified and their functions elucidated. Studies over = the past=20 two years have shown that many of these identified components = act to=20 regulate the self-renewal versus differentiation decision and = appear to function as tumor suppressors during larval nervous = system development. In this paper, we highlight the growing=20 number of molecules that are normally considered to be key=20 regulators of cell cycle events/progression that have = recently been=20 shown to impinge on the neuroblast asymmetric division = machinery=20 to control asymmetric protein localization and/or the = decision=20 to self-renew or differentiate.

Abbreviations used in=20 this paper: APC/C, anaphase-promoting complex/cyclosome; = aPKC,=20 atypical PKC; GMC, ganglion mother cell.

The machinery that drives neuroblast asymmetry = and the=20 differential fate of the daughters
One of the best=20 Drosophila melanogaster models for studying asymmetric = division are the neural progenitors, or neuroblasts, which go = on to=20 generate the majority of the cells of the central nervous = system.=20 Neuroblasts undergo asymmetric divisions, generating two = daughter=20 cells of distinct size and fate. The larger daughter retains=20 neuroblast identity and can continue to divide asymmetrically = and=20 self-renew, whereas the smaller daughter, namely the ganglion = mother=20 cell (GMC), is committed to the differentiation pathway and = divides=20 terminally to produce two neurons or glial cells. Through = repeated=20 self-renewing asymmetric divisions, neuroblasts, like other = stem or=20 progenitor cells, can generate a large number of = differentiated=20 progeny during their lifetime.

Many key components of the genetic machinery that facilitate = the=20 neuroblast asymmetric division have been identified and = characterized=20 (Egger=20 et al., 2008; for review see Yu=20 et al., 2006). There are in essence three key features = associated=20 with the neuroblast asymmetric division: (1) cell fate=20 determinants, which act as differentiation factors, are=20 asymmetrically localized as cortical crescents during = mitosis; (2)=20 the mitotic spindle is oriented orthogonal to the cortical = protein=20 crescents to ensure their exclusive segregation to the GMC = daughter;=20 and (3) the mitotic spindle is itself asymmetrical, resulting = in=20 the production of a larger neuroblast daughter and a smaller=20 GMC daughter. All three features of this asymmetric division=20 appear to be regulated by a set of proteins localized to the=20 apical cell cortex starting during the late G2 phase of the=20 cell cycle. These key components and their roles in mediating = the neuroblast asymmetric division are summarized in Fig.=20 1 A. The cell fate determinants are localized to the = basal cell=20 cortex of embryonic neuroblasts, and the mitotic spindle is=20 aligned along the apicobasal axis. A subset of these = embryonic=20 neuroblasts become quiescent, and proliferation is reinstated = during=20 larval development. The basic machinery involved in the=20 asymmetric division of these larval neuroblasts appears to be = conserved with embryonic neuroblasts; however, larval = neuroblasts of=20 the central brain divide without a fixed orientation. =



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  		Figure 1.=20 Summary of some of the key players and features of = neuroblast=20 asymmetric division. (A) Asymmetrical segregation of = basal=20 cell fate determinants specifically into the daughter GMC = requires=20 the correct localization of protein complexes to the apical = cell=20 cortex. The apically localized proteins comprise two protein = complexes linked by the adaptor protein Inscuteable. The=20 evolutionary conserved Par protein cassette comprising = Bazooka/Par3,=20 aPKC, and Par6 is the first protein complex to localize to = the=20 neuroblast cell cortex and is primarily involved in = excluding the=20 basally localized proteins from the apical cortex. This = protein=20 cassette regulates the activity of the tumor suppressor = lethal giant=20 larvae (Lgl), which is also essential for correct targeting = of the=20 basal protein complexes. Par6 can directly associate with = Lgl, and=20 it is in this complex that aPKC is believed to inactivate = Lgl by=20 phosphorylation. Miranda is thus recruited to the basal cell = cortex=20 by the active nonphosphorylated Lgl. The second apical = protein=20 complex contains proteins involved with heterotrimeric G = protein=20 signaling, including G3D{alpha}=20i, = Partner of=20 Inscuteable (Pins), and Locomotion defects (Loco). This = complex is=20 thought to mediate a receptor-independent heterotrimeric G = protein=20 signaling mechanism involving the regulation of G3D{alpha}=20i through = interactions with the cytoplasmic guanine nucleotide = exchange factor=20 (Ric-8) and guanine nucleotide dissociation inhibitors (Loco = and=20 Pins). The G3D{alpha}i=96Pins=96Loco complex mediates mitotic spindle = formation and=20 alignment to ensure that the cleavage plane is orthogonal to = the=20 apical/basal polarity axis. The geometry of the neuroblast = mitotic=20 spindle is asymmetrical; the spindle length is longer on the = apical=20 side, and the entire spindle is displaced toward the basal = cortex.=20 The centrosomes are also nonequivalent, with the larger = mother=20 centrosome emanating more extensive astral microtubules and = being=20 preferentially retained within the neuroblast through = subsequent=20 divisions. Pins can also associate with the centrosome- and = apical=20 cortex=96associated nuclear mitotic apparatus = protein=96-related protein=20 mushroom body defective (Mud), which is essential for proper = spindle=20 alignment, as well as Discs large (Dlg) and the astral = microtubule=20 plus end protein Khc-73 to induce cortical polarity. The=20 actin/myosin cytoskeleton also plays an important role in = the=20 assembly of these apical/basal protein complexes. Actin = filaments=20 but not microtubules appear to play an essential role in = cortical=20 tethering of the proteins, and the Drosophila myosins = II=20 (Zipper) and VI (Jaguar) exist in mutually exclusive = complexes with=20 Miranda and are essential for correct asymmetric = localization of the=20 cell fate determinants. The basal proteins exist as two = protein=20 complexes. One complex contains the adaptor protein Miranda, = which=20 associates with and facilitates the asymmetric localization = of the=20 translational repressor Brain tumor (Brat), the homeodomain=20 transcription factor Prospero, and the double-stranded = RNA-binding=20 protein Staufen, which itself can bind prospero = transcripts.=20 The second complex contains the Notch antagonist Numb and = its=20 binding partner Partner of Numb (Pon). Upon segregation into = the=20 GMC, Miranda is degraded, allowing Prospero to translocate = into the=20 nucleus to activate genes involved in differentiation and = repress=20 genes involved in proliferation. The GMC divides terminally = to=20 produce two neurons or glia. Note that the apical/basal = nomenclature=20 is based on embryonic neuroblasts and that neuroblasts in = the=20 central brain divide without a fixed orientation. Please = note that=20 the color of the lettering corresponds to the protein's = localization=20 in the schematic picture; in the case of black lettering, = the=20 protein can be found throughout the cortex. (B) = Postembryonic=20 neuroblasts divide to produce a lineage of differentiated = progeny.=20 The cell types of the lineage can readily be distinguished = with=20 neuroblast markers such as Insc (green), Miranda (red), and = Deadpan=20 (gray) and markers for differentiated progeny like Elav and = nuclear=20 Prospero (red). A disruption to cell polarity and/or spindle = orientation (e.g., in aurora A and polo = mutants) can=20 affect the balance between self-renewal and differentiation, = resulting in too many self-renewing cells at the expense of=20 differentiated progeny. WT, wild type. =

 
Failure in asymmetric division, = overproliferation, and=20 tumor formation
The Drosophila larval brain = neuroblast=20 has recently emerged as a novel model for the study of stem = cell=20 self-renewal and tumorigenesis. Several types of studies have = led to=20 the view that defective asymmetric division may lead to the=20 generation of tumors. First, brain tissue mutant for several = of the=20 components that control neuroblast asymmetric division (e.g., = Miranda, Prospero, Numb, lethal giant larvae [Lgl], Brat, and = Partner of Inscuteable [Pins]) will undergo massive = overgrowth=20 upon transplantation into the abdomen of wild-type hosts,=20 killing the host within weeks (Caussinus=20 and Gonzalez, 2005; Beaucher=20 et al., 2007). These implanted cells exhibit many of the=20 hallmarks of malignant neoplastic growth. They appear to be = immortal=20 and can be serially transplanted into successive hosts over = years.=20 They exhibit genome instability as indicated by high = frequencies of=20 cytologically abnormal karyotypes as well as defects in = centrosome=20 morphology and number. These transplanted cells can also = exhibit=20 metastatic behavior, migrating away from the site of the = primary=20 tumor, passing through several cell layers, and establishing=20 secondary colonies. Because the tumors derived from tissues = mutant=20 for different components of the neuroblast asymmetry = machinery=20 are essentially indistinguishable, it seems likely that they=20 arise from a common mechanism: the disruption of neuroblast=20 asymmetry and the production of excess self-renewing = cells.=20

Supporting this view, a second series of recent studies have = shown=20 that all of the basal cell fate determinants (Prospero, Brat, = and=20 Numb as well as their adaptor molecules Miranda and Partner = of Numb;=20 Bello=20 et al., 2006; Betschinger=20 et al., 2006; Choksi=20 et al., 2006; Lee=20 et al., 2006a,c;=20 Wang=20 et al., 2006), which facilitate their asymmetric = localization,=20 can act as tumor suppressors (Fig.=20 1). Larval neuroblasts homozygous for mutations in any of = these=20 genes produce supernumerary self-renewing daughters at the = expense of=20 differentiated cells. These observations suggest that the = loss of or=20 a failure to correctly asymmetrically localize these = determinants in=20 larval neuroblasts can result in the failure to correctly = specify the=20 fate of their daughters, which can, in turn, lead to=20 overproliferation and tumorigenesis. Consistently, several = earlier=20 studies showed that mutations in three genes, discs = large=20 (dlg), (lgl), and scribble (scrib), which=20 induced the formation of malignant neoplastic tumors of the=20 nervous system, also caused defects in the asymmetric = localization=20 of the cell fate determinants in neuroblasts (Ohshiro=20 et al., 2000; Peng=20 et al., 2000; Betschinger=20 et al., 2006; Lee=20 et al., 2006b). Lgl functions to restrict atypical PKC = (aPKC) to=20 the apical daughter (self-renewing cell), and it is also the = target=20 of aPKC phosphorylation (Fig.=20 1; Lee=20 et al., 2006b). Together, these studies suggest a causal = link=20 between defects in neuroblast asymmetric division and=20 overproliferation/tumorigenesis in the larval brain. These = findings=20 have recently been reviewed and will not be discussed in = detail here=20 (for reviews see Yu=20 et al., 2006; Gonzalez,=20 2007).

Cell cycle genes can regulate asymmetric = division and=20 act as tumor suppressors
Recent published and = unpublished=20 studies have reinforced an earlier view that cell cycle = regulators=20 can impinge on the asymmetric division machinery. Mutations = in=20 several genes encoding key regulators of cell cycle events = can affect=20 asymmetric protein localization, specification of distinct = daughter=20 cell fates, and/or the decision to self-renew or = differentiate. In=20 addition, the activation of cell cycle proteins, including = CDK1,=20 aurora A, and Polo, at prometaphase and metaphase coincides = with=20 the timing of asymmetric protein localization during = neuroblast=20 divisions, leading to a delicate temporal control of = asymmetric=20 division.

cdc2/CDK1 levels can determine whether a = neural=20 progenitor division is symmetric or asymmetric
The = first=20 indication that cell cycle regulators might also control = aspects of=20 the asymmetric division of neural progenitors came from a = study on=20 Cdc2/CDK1 (Tio=20 et al., 2001). A dominant-negative allele of cdc2, = cdc2E51Q, was isolated in a genetic screen = designed=20 to identify mutations that converted asymmetric GMC divisions = that produced two daughter neurons with distinct identities=20 into symmetric divisions generating two neurons of identical=20 fate. Cdc2 in complex with the A- or B-type cyclins = provides=20 the kinase activity (CDK1) that is necessary to drive cells=20 from G2 to mitosis, and cells lacking CDK1 activity arrest in = G2 phase. Analysis using cdc2E51Q as well as a=20 temperature-sensitive allele of cdc2 under conditions = in which=20 the activity of cdc2 was attenuated, but not = sufficiently so=20 to prevent cells from entering mitosis, resulted in the = failure to=20 asymmetrically localize both the apical and basal components = of the=20 neuroblast asymmetry machinery, causing asymmetric divisions = to be=20 converted to symmetric divisions. Therefore, it appeared that = there=20 exists an intermediate level of cdc2 activity that = enabled=20 neural progenitors (and muscle progenitors) to divide but did = not=20 allow the division to be asymmetric because of a failure in=20 asymmetric protein localization.

A direct demonstration that cdc2 activity was required = during=20 mitosis for asymmetric protein localization was facilitated = by=20 the knowledge that asymmetric protein localization does not = require=20 intact microtubules. In neuroblasts arrested at prometaphase = using a=20 microtubule-depolarizing drug in which all (both maternal and = zygotic) of the cdc2 is temperature sensitive, normal apical = and basal protein crescents are formed at the permissive = temperature.=20 However, after a shift to the nonpermissive temperature, = asymmetric=20 protein localization cannot be maintained. If it is CDK1 = activity=20 that is responsible for the maintenance of asymmetric protein = localization, attenuating cyclin levels might also be = expected=20 to cause defects in asymmetric protein localization. Cyclin = A=20 is degraded at prometaphase, whereas cyclin B and B3 are degraded=20 during anaphase. In neuroblast double mutants for the late = degrading=20 cyclin B and B3, mislocalization of both apical and basal = components=20 can be seen at metaphase coinciding temporally with cyclin A=20 degradation. These observations support the view that high = levels=20 of CDK1 activity are required during mitosis to maintain = asymmetric=20 protein localization and that it is possible to convert an = asymmetric=20 division into a symmetric division by altering the levels of=20 CDK1 activity.

Aurora A and Polo kinases act as tumor = suppressors by=20 preventing excess self-renewal
Two other highly = evolutionally=20 conserved kinases, aurora A and Polo, have recently been = shown to=20 impinge on the neuroblast asymmetric division machinery and = exhibit=20 tumor suppressor properties in the larval brain (Lee=20 et al., 2006a; Wang=20 et al., 2006, 2007). Both kinases were initially = identified as=20 centrosomal proteins that have roles in mediating a multitude = of=20 mitotic processes. Loss of function mutations in either gene = had=20 previously been described as causing defects in centrosome=20 maturation, delay/arrest at metaphase, or defects during = cytokinesis=20 (Llamazares=20 et al., 1991; Glover=20 et al., 1995;Carmena=20 et al., 1998). Surprisingly, however, it was shown = recently that=20 mutations in aurora A or polo cause massive = overgrowth=20 in the brain but not other tissues (Lee=20 et al., 2006a; Wang=20 et al., 2006, 2007).=20

Live imaging (for aurora A mutants) and clonal analyses = indicate=20 that mutant brain neuroblasts can produce two self-renewing=20 daughters, leading to an excess of neuroblast-like cells at = the=20 expense of differentiated neurons. Asymmetric localization of = Numb=20 and Pon (but not Prospero, Miranda, and Brat) is adversely = affected=20 in the aurora A and polo mutant neuroblasts. = Presumably=20 as a result of the partial loss of function, cell division = can=20 occur, although asymmetric protein localization is disrupted. = Although this defect is one of several (see the next two = paragraphs)=20 caused by aurora A and polo mutants, it alone is=20 sufficient to cause the observed overproliferation because = clones in=20 the larval central brain derived from single neuroblasts = mutant=20 for numb or pon exhibit excess proliferation at the=20 expense of differentiation. Moreover, this overproliferation=20 observed in aurora A and polo mutants can be = largely=20 but not completely reversed by overexpressing wild-type Numb. = Interestingly, clones derived from single neuroblasts = expressing a=20 constitutively activated form of Notch in the central brain = also=20 exhibit an overproliferation phenotype similar to that seen = in=20 aurora A and numb loss of function. However, = Notch is=20 not required for neuroblast proliferation in the ventral = nerve cord,=20 suggesting that its role in neuroblast proliferation differs = in=20 different tissues (Almeida=20 and Bray, 2005). Attenuating Notch in either aurora = A or=20 polo homozygous mutant background can suppress the=20 overproliferation phenotype, albeit partially. These findings = suggest that a genetic hierarchy comprising aurora = A/polo,=20 numb, and the neuroblast act to ensure that Notch is=20 preferentially activated only in the daughter cell, which = adopts=20 progenitor identity where it acts to promote = self-renewal.=20

Little is known about the biochemical substrates through which=20 Aurora A might act to suppress excess proliferation. However, = Pon has been shown to be a functionally important downstream=20 target of Polo kinase for the regulation of neuroblast = asymmetric=20 division (Wang=20 et al., 2007). Numb asymmetric localization is = facilitated by=20 Pon, which is itself asymmetrically localized. The C-terminal = localization domain (Pon-LD), which is necessary and = sufficient to=20 mediate Pon asymmetric localization, contains a serine = residue (S611)=20 that matches the consensus phosphorylation site for Polo. = Both in=20 vitro and in vivo experiments suggested that Polo can = directly=20 phosphorylate Pon. The significance of this phosphorylation = is=20 demonstrated by the fact that Pon S611 phosphorylation is = essential=20 for Pon asymmetric localization. Thus, Polo can regulate the=20 asymmetric division of neuroblasts by phosphorylating and, = thereby,=20 facilitating the asymmetric localization of Pon. = Consistently, Polo=20 is also required for the asymmetric localization of Numb = during=20 neuroblast divisions.

These findings illustrate the importance of Numb/Pon as = downstream=20 components of aurora A and polo in mediating the=20 asymmetric fates of the neuroblast daughters. However, it is=20 important to emphasize that polo/aurora A loss = of=20 function, in addition to impinging on Pon/Numb asymmetric=20 localization, also affects several distinct = pathways/components that=20 can also contribute to the self-renewal versus = differentiation=20 decision. Neuroblasts mutant for polo/aurora A = also=20 fail to asymmetrically localize aPKC, which has properties = consistent=20 with that of a proliferation factor. In addition, the tight = coupling=20 seen in wild-type neuroblasts, in which the mitotic spindle = is always=20 oriented orthogonal to the cortical protein crescents, is = disrupted=20 in polo/aurora A mutants. It is known that = neuroblasts=20 mutant for components of the centrosome, like centrosomin and = mushroom body defect, which disrupt mitotic spindle = orientation, can=20 also exhibit overproliferation, although this effect is weak = (Bowman=20 et al., 2006; Izumi=20 et al., 2006; Lee=20 et al., 2006a; Siller=20 et al., 2006). During mammalian neurogenesis, spindle = orientation=20 has also been shown to be an important determinant for the = choice=20 of asymmetric division versus symmetric division. Loss of=20 function of several centrosomal components (i.e., abnormal=20 spindlelike microcephaly associated) results in predominant=20 asymmetric division and premature differentiation of neural=20 progenitors and the formation of a smaller brain (the related = disease=20 is termed microcephaly in human patients; Bond=20 et al., 2002). In another study, knockdown of mouse=20 inscuteable expression changed the division plane of = neural=20 progenitors and resulted in more frequent symmetric divisions = that=20 lead to enhanced proliferation (Zigman=20 et al., 2005). Thus, the phenotype induced by=20 polo/aurora A mutants is not merely caused by=20 disruption of the Numb=96Notch pathway but the sum of the = effects=20 exerted on multiple pathways. In view of the pleiotrophic = nature of=20 these kinases, it is not surprising that although expressing = a=20 phosphomimetic form of Pon in polo mutant neuroblasts = can=20 restore asymmetric Numb localization, the overproliferation, = spindle=20 orientation, and aPKC asymmetric localization defects = remain.=20

The tumor suppressor function of Aurora A and Polo in = Drosophila=20 larval brains is in contrast to the previously reported and=20 widely accepted view that they act as oncogenes in mammalian=20 cells (Zhou=20 et al., 1998). Both mammalian Aurora A and Pololike = kinase 1 can=20 phosphorylate tumor suppressor p53, leading to its = destabilization=20 and degradation, and, thus, appear to act as negative = regulators of=20 p53 (Ando=20 et al., 2004; Katayama=20 et al., 2004). Conversely, the overexpression of Aurora A = or Polo=20 can induce oncogenic transformation, presumably through=20 down-regulating p53 functions. Overexpression of Aurora A or = Pololike=20 kinase 1 can also lead to the generation of multiple = centrosomes=20 through defects in cell division and consequent = tetraploidization,=20 thereby leading to tumor progression (Meraldi=20 et al., 2002). Recently, it was shown that lymphomas in=20 p53-deficient mice exhibit the frequent deletion of the = Aurora A gene=20 and/or reduced protein expression, whereas normal tissue from = the=20 same mutant mice had increased Aurora A protein levels (Mao=20 et al., 2007). These apparent discrepancies between flies = and=20 mammalian cells are currently unresolved, and elucidating the = function, if any, of Aurora A and Polo during mammalian = neurogenesis=20 will be of great interest.

Cyclin E can act downstream of homeotic genes = to convert=20 a symmetric division into an asymmetric = division
Cyclin E, a=20 G1/S cyclin, is a molecule with a key role in regulating the = G1- to=20 S-phase transition. It also plays a necessary and sufficient = role in=20 making the thoracic neuroblast 6-4 (NB6-4t) divide = asymmetrically,=20 whereas its abdominal counterpart (NB6-4a) does not (Berger=20 et al., 2005). NB6-4t localizes Prospero asymmetrically = and=20 divides to produce a Prospero+ glioblast daughter and a=20 Prospero=96 neuroblast daughter (which produces only=20 neurons). In contrast, NB6-4a divides symmetrically to = produce two=20 Prospero+ daughters of glial fate. This thoracic = versus=20 abdominal difference appears to be imposed by the = differential=20 expression of cyclin E in NB6-4t but not NB6-4a. In = cyclin=20 E mutants, both NB6-4t and NB6-4a fail to localize = Prospero, and=20 both divide symmetrically to produce daughters of glial fate. = Conversely, the ectopic expression of cyclin E in = NB6-4a is=20 sufficient to cause it to divide asymmetrically like NB6-4t.=20 Cyclin E expression is negatively regulated by genes = of the=20 bithorax complex; thus, in NB6-4a, in the abdominal = neuromeres where=20 AbdA and AbdB are expressed, cyclin E expression is = repressed.=20 The role of cyclin E in mediating asymmetric division = and=20 specifying cell fate appears to be independent of its role in = cell=20 proliferation. Neither loss nor gain of function of Decapo, = the=20 Drosophila homologue of the P21/Cip/Kip family of = cyclin E=96Cdk=20 complex inhibitors, or dE2F, which is activated by cyclin E = and=20 required for the initiation of S phase, had any effect on = cell fate=20 in the NB6-4a or NB6-4t lineages, although cell numbers were=20 affected. Thus, cyclin E can apparently act = independently of=20 its role in proliferation and downstream of homeotic function = to=20 autonomously specify the NB6-4t asymmetric division. =

Cyclin E has also been attributed to have the ability to confer=20 self-renewing asymmetric division potential to GMCs (Bhat=20 and Apsel, 2004) and the establishment of cortical = polarity in=20 Caenorhabditis elegans (Cowan=20 and Hyman, 2006). Cyclin E expression has been reported = to be=20 down-regulated by the fate-determining factor Tramtrack in = the=20 asymmetric divisions of the Drosophila sensory bristle = lineage=20 (Audibert=20 et al., 2005). Up-regulation of cyclin E has been = observed in=20 both imaginal and brain tumors (Moberg=20 et al., 2001; Betschinger=20 et al., 2006; Wang=20 et al., 2006). Interestingly, elevated levels of cyclin E = have=20 also been observed in a subset of human tumors, including = those of=20 the breast and ovary (Keyomarsi=20 and Herliczek, 1997).

Anaphase-promoting complex/cyclosome function = is=20 required for the asymmetric localization of Miranda and its cargo=20 proteins
The anaphase-promoting complex/cyclosome = (APC/C) is=20 a protein complex with at least 11 core subunits that = functions as=20 an E3 ubiquitin ligase that normally targets proteins for=20 degradation via the 26S proteasome (Peters,=20 2006). Transient associations with the activating = subunits Cdc20=20 and Cdh1 promote mitotic transitions via several key = processes,=20 including the destruction of mitotic cyclins and inhibitors = of=20 chromosome separation as well as the regulation of DNA = replication,=20 centrosome duplication, and mitotic spindle assembly (Sigrist=20 et al., 1995; Zur=20 and Brandeis, 2001; Leismann=20 and Lehner, 2003). APC/C activity has recently been shown = to have=20 cell cycle=96independent roles, including the control of axon = growth=20 and patterning in the developing mammalian brain (Konishi=20 et al., 2004), the regulation of synaptic size and = transmission=20 in both C. elegans and Drosophila (Juo=20 and Kaplan, 2004; van=20 Roessel et al., 2004), and establishing the = anterior=96posterior=20 axis of the C. elegans zygote by asymmetrically = distributing=20 Par proteins and promoting association of the paternal=20 pronucleus/centrosome with the actin-rich cortex (Rappleye=20 et al., 2002).

Recent findings suggest that APC/C core function is specifically = required for asymmetric localization of Miranda and its = interacting=20 proteins Prospero, Brat, and Staufen but for none of the = other=20 asymmetrically localized components of the Drosophila=20 neuroblast asymmetry machinery (Slack=20 et al., 2007). Mutations in any one of several APC/C core = components cause Miranda and its associated proteins to = mislocalize=20 to a pericentrosomal region, the nature of which is currently = undefined. Mislocalization to this compartment requires = neither=20 intact microtubules nor intact centrosomal function. Although = typical=20 APC/C mutants are arrested at metaphase with high Cdk1 = activity, the delocalization of Miranda appears to be largely = independent of these defects. Miranda can be ubiquitinated = both in=20 vivo and in S2 cells. The extreme C-terminal region of = Miranda=20 contains a putative APC/C motif, and removal/replacement of = this=20 region prevents Miranda ubiquitination in S2 cells. = Correlating with=20 this disruption to ubiquitination, the mutant Miranda = mislocalizes to=20 the pericentrosomal compartment in a microtubule-independent = manner.=20 Interestingly, replacement of this C-terminal region with a = ubiquitin=20 moiety can restore asymmetric localization in dividing larval = neuroblasts. Thus, APC/C seems to facilitate the = ubiquitination of=20 Miranda, which appears to be required for the asymmetric = cortical=20 localization of Miranda. Given the known function of APC/C in = ubiquitin-mediated degradation, it will be interesting to = determine=20 whether Miranda is a direct substrate for APC/C.

Concluding remarks
There is = increasing evidence that cell cycle regulators can impinge on = the=20 neuroblast asymmetry machinery and control various aspects of = asymmetric division, including the decision of self-renewal = versus=20 differentiation. These cell cycle regulators include protein = kinases,=20 Cdc2/Cdk1, Aurora A, and Polo as well as APC core components = and=20 cyclin E. Interestingly, the basal protein component Pon has = been=20 shown to be a phosphorylation substrate of Polo kinase, = providing a=20 direct molecular link between a cell cycle regulator and a = component=20 of the asymmetry machinery. It has been shown that = Cdc2/cyclin E and=20 APC function are important for the establishment of cell = polarity in=20 the C. elegans zygote, suggesting that this regulation = may be=20 evolutionally conserved. The most intriguing observation is = that some=20 of the cell cycle regulators, including Aurora A and Polo, = possess=20 tumor suppressor activity in the Drosophila larval = brain, at=20 least in part through regulating Numb asymmetry. Currently, = many=20 questions remain. What are the additional downstream factors = that are=20 controlled by the Cdk1/Aurora A/Polo kinases in the = regulation of=20 asymmetric protein localization and progenitor self-renewal? = What, if=20 any, interplay is there between the Numb=96Notch pathway on = the=20 one hand and Brat=96Prospero on the other in regulating=20 neuroblast self-renewal? How general a role will = ubiquitination=20 play in the process of asymmetric protein localization and = asymmetric=20 division? Future studies will provide insight into these = issues.=20


3D""    Acknowledgments=20
 
We thank the reviewers for = helpful=20 comments.

Financial support was received from the Temasek Life Sciences=20 Laboratory.

Submitted: 23 August 2007

Accepted: 30 November 2007


3D""    References =
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Abstract
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Opera = requires=0A= the Sun Java Runtime Environment .=0A= =0A= by Andrew Gregory=0A= http://www.scss.com.au/family/andrew/webdesign/xmlhttprequest/=0A= =0A= This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution License. To = view a=0A= copy of this license, visit = http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.5/ or=0A= send a letter to Creative Commons, 559 Nathan Abbott Way, Stanford, = California=0A= 94305, USA.=0A= =0A= Attribution: Leave my name and web address in this script intact.=0A= =0A= Not Supported in Opera=0A= ----------------------=0A= * user/password authentication=0A= * responseXML data member=0A= =0A= Not Fully Supported in Opera=0A= ----------------------------=0A= * async requests=0A= * abort()=0A= * getAllResponseHeaders(), getAllResponseHeader(header)=0A= =0A= */=0A= // IE support=0A= if (window.ActiveXObject && !window.XMLHttpRequest) {=0A= window.XMLHttpRequest =3D function() {=0A= var msxmls =3D new Array(=0A= 'Msxml2.XMLHTTP.5.0',=0A= 'Msxml2.XMLHTTP.4.0',=0A= 'Msxml2.XMLHTTP.3.0',=0A= 'Msxml2.XMLHTTP',=0A= 'Microsoft.XMLHTTP');=0A= for (var i =3D 0; i < msxmls.length; i++) {=0A= try {=0A= return new ActiveXObject(msxmls[i]);=0A= } catch (e) {=0A= }=0A= }=0A= return null;=0A= };=0A= }=0A= // Gecko support=0A= /* ;-) */=0A= // Opera support=0A= if (window.opera && !window.XMLHttpRequest) {=0A= window.XMLHttpRequest =3D function() {=0A= this.readyState =3D 0; // = 0=3Duninitialized,1=3Dloading,2=3Dloaded,3=3Dinteractive,4=3Dcomplete=0A= this.status =3D 0; // HTTP status codes=0A= this.statusText =3D '';=0A= this._headers =3D [];=0A= this._aborted =3D false;=0A= this._async =3D true;=0A= this._defaultCharset =3D 'ISO-8859-1';=0A= this._getCharset =3D function() {=0A= var charset =3D _defaultCharset;=0A= var contentType =3D = this.getResponseHeader('Content-type').toUpperCase();=0A= val =3D contentType.indexOf('CHARSET=3D');=0A= if (val !=3D -1) {=0A= charset =3D contentType.substring(val);=0A= }=0A= val =3D charset.indexOf(';');=0A= if (val !=3D -1) {=0A= charset =3D charset.substring(0, val);=0A= }=0A= val =3D charset.indexOf(',');=0A= if (val !=3D -1) {=0A= charset =3D charset.substring(0, val);=0A= }=0A= return charset;=0A= };=0A= this.abort =3D function() {=0A= this._aborted =3D true;=0A= };=0A= this.getAllResponseHeaders =3D function() {=0A= return this.getAllResponseHeader('*');=0A= };=0A= this.getAllResponseHeader =3D function(header) {=0A= var ret =3D '';=0A= for (var i =3D 0; i < this._headers.length; i++) {=0A= if (header =3D=3D '*' || this._headers[i].h =3D=3D header) {=0A= ret +=3D this._headers[i].h + ': ' + this._headers[i].v + '\n';=0A= }=0A= }=0A= return ret;=0A= };=0A= this.getResponseHeader =3D function(header) {=0A= var ret =3D getAllResponseHeader(header);=0A= var i =3D ret.indexOf('\n');=0A= if (i !=3D -1) {=0A= ret =3D ret.substring(0, i);=0A= }=0A= return ret;=0A= };=0A= this.setRequestHeader =3D function(header, value) {=0A= this._headers[this._headers.length] =3D {h:header, v:value};=0A= };=0A= this.open =3D function(method, url, async, user, password) {=0A= this.method =3D method;=0A= this.url =3D url;=0A= this._async =3D true;=0A= this._aborted =3D false;=0A= this._headers =3D [];=0A= if (arguments.length >=3D 3) {=0A= this._async =3D async;=0A= }=0A= if (arguments.length > 3) {=0A= opera.postError('XMLHttpRequest.open() - user/password not = supported');=0A= }=0A= this.readyState =3D 1;=0A= if (this.onreadystatechange) {=0A= this.onreadystatechange();=0A= }=0A= };=0A= this.send =3D function(data) {=0A= if (!navigator.javaEnabled()) {=0A= alert("XMLHttpRequest.send() - Java must be installed and = enabled.");=0A= return;=0A= }=0A= if (this._async) {=0A= setTimeout(this._sendasync, 0, this, data);=0A= // this is not really asynchronous and won't execute until the = current=0A= // execution context ends=0A= } else {=0A= this._sendsync(data);=0A= }=0A= }=0A= this._sendasync =3D function(req, data) {=0A= if (!req._aborted) {=0A= req._sendsync(data);=0A= }=0A= };=0A= this._sendsync =3D function(data) {=0A= this.readyState =3D 2;=0A= if (this.onreadystatechange) {=0A= this.onreadystatechange();=0A= }=0A= // open connection=0A= var url =3D new java.net.URL(new = java.net.URL(window.location.href), this.url);=0A= var conn =3D url.openConnection();=0A= for (var i =3D 0; i < this._headers.length; i++) {=0A= conn.setRequestProperty(this._headers[i].h, this._headers[i].v);=0A= }=0A= this._headers =3D [];=0A= if (this.method =3D=3D 'POST') {=0A= // POST data=0A= conn.setDoOutput(true);=0A= var wr =3D new = java.io.OutputStreamWriter(conn.getOutputStream(), this._getCharset());=0A= wr.write(data);=0A= wr.flush();=0A= wr.close();=0A= }=0A= // read response headers=0A= // NOTE: the getHeaderField() methods always return nulls for me :(=0A= var gotContentEncoding =3D false;=0A= var gotContentLength =3D false;=0A= var gotContentType =3D false;=0A= var gotDate =3D false;=0A= var gotExpiration =3D false;=0A= var gotLastModified =3D false;=0A= for (var i =3D 0; ; i++) {=0A= var hdrName =3D conn.getHeaderFieldKey(i);=0A= var hdrValue =3D conn.getHeaderField(i);=0A= if (hdrName =3D=3D null && hdrValue =3D=3D null) {=0A= break;=0A= }=0A= if (hdrName !=3D null) {=0A= this._headers[this._headers.length] =3D {h:hdrName, = v:hdrValue};=0A= switch (hdrName.toLowerCase()) {=0A= case 'content-encoding': gotContentEncoding =3D true; break;=0A= case 'content-length' : gotContentLength =3D true; break;=0A= case 'content-type' : gotContentType =3D true; break;=0A= case 'date' : gotDate =3D true; break;=0A= case 'expires' : gotExpiration =3D true; break;=0A= case 'last-modified' : gotLastModified =3D true; break;=0A= }=0A= }=0A= }=0A= // try to fill in any missing header information=0A= var val;=0A= val =3D conn.getContentEncoding();=0A= if (val !=3D null && !gotContentEncoding) = this._headers[this._headers.length] =3D {h:'Content-encoding', v:val};=0A= val =3D conn.getContentLength();=0A= if (val !=3D -1 && !gotContentLength) = this._headers[this._headers.length] =3D {h:'Content-length', v:val};=0A= val =3D conn.getContentType();=0A= if (val !=3D null && !gotContentType) = this._headers[this._headers.length] =3D {h:'Content-type', v:val};=0A= val =3D conn.getDate();=0A= if (val !=3D 0 && !gotDate) this._headers[this._headers.length] = =3D {h:'Date', v:(new Date(val)).toUTCString()};=0A= val =3D conn.getExpiration();=0A= if (val !=3D 0 && !gotExpiration) = this._headers[this._headers.length] =3D {h:'Expires', v:(new = Date(val)).toUTCString()};=0A= val =3D conn.getLastModified();=0A= if (val !=3D 0 && !gotLastModified) = this._headers[this._headers.length] =3D {h:'Last-modified', v:(new = Date(val)).toUTCString()};=0A= // read response data=0A= var reqdata =3D '';=0A= var stream =3D conn.getInputStream();=0A= if (stream) {=0A= var reader =3D new java.io.BufferedReader(new = java.io.InputStreamReader(stream, this._getCharset()));=0A= var line;=0A= while ((line =3D reader.readLine()) !=3D null) {=0A= if (this.readyState =3D=3D 2) {=0A= this.readyState =3D 3;=0A= if (this.onreadystatechange) {=0A= this.onreadystatechange();=0A= }=0A= }=0A= reqdata +=3D line + '\n';=0A= }=0A= reader.close();=0A= this.status =3D 200;=0A= this.statusText =3D 'OK';=0A= this.responseText =3D reqdata;=0A= this.readyState =3D 4;=0A= if (this.onreadystatechange) {=0A= this.onreadystatechange();=0A= }=0A= if (this.onload) {=0A= this.onload();=0A= }=0A= } else {=0A= // error=0A= this.status =3D 404;=0A= this.statusText =3D 'Not Found';=0A= this.responseText =3D '';=0A= this.readyState =3D 4;=0A= if (this.onreadystatechange) {=0A= this.onreadystatechange();=0A= }=0A= if (this.onerror) {=0A= this.onerror();=0A= }=0A= }=0A= };=0A= };=0A= }=0A= // ActiveXObject emulation=0A= if (!window.ActiveXObject && window.XMLHttpRequest) {=0A= window.ActiveXObject =3D function(type) {=0A= switch (type.toLowerCase()) {=0A= case 'microsoft.xmlhttp':=0A= case 'msxml2.xmlhttp':=0A= case 'msxml2.xmlhttp.3.0':=0A= case 'msxml2.xmlhttp.4.0':=0A= case 'msxml2.xmlhttp.5.0':=0A= return new XMLHttpRequest();=0A= }=0A= return null;=0A= };=0A= }=0A= ------=_NextPart_000_0000_01C863E6.FC53AFF0 Content-Type: application/octet-stream Content-Transfer-Encoding: quoted-printable Content-Location: http://www.jcb.org/javascript/ajax/utility.js /************************************************************************= *****=0A= * javascript/ajax/utility.js=0A= *=0A= * Utility functions for working with XMLHttpRequest data.=0A= *=0A= * Copyright 2006 Board of Trustees of the Leland Stanford Junior = University.=0A= = *************************************************************************= ***/=0A= =0A= /*=0A= * Copy XML nodes into an HTMLElement. This effectively=0A= * clones XML markup which uses XHTML naming conventions=0A= * into an HTML DOM.=0A= */=0A= function copy_xml_to_html(src, dst) {=0A= if (src.nodeType =3D=3D 1) { /* Node.ELEMENT_NODE */=0A= var e =3D document.createElement(src.nodeName);=0A= for (var i =3D 0; i < src.childNodes.length; i++) {=0A= copy_xml_to_html(src.childNodes[i], e);=0A= }=0A= for (var i =3D 0; i < src.attributes.length; i++) {=0A= var n =3D src.attributes[i].name;=0A= var v =3D unescape_xml_string(src.attributes[i].value); =0A= e.setAttribute(n, v);=0A= if (n =3D=3D "class") {=0A= e.className =3D v;=0A= }=0A= else if (n =3D=3D "style") {=0A= set_css_style(v, e, "");=0A= }=0A= }=0A= dst.appendChild(e);=0A= }=0A= else if (src.nodeType =3D=3D 3) { /* Node.TEXT_NODE */=0A= dst.appendChild(document.createTextNode(src.nodeValue));=0A= }=0A= }=0A= =0A= /* =0A= * It is unclear that this is the right thing to be calling=0A= * from copy_xml_to_html, but it appears that Safari decides=0A= * to convert & to the NCR #, and then encodes that=0A= * NCR to &%26%2338;. So, I'm going to treat the DOM Attr=0A= * value as a plain string, and run our XML string input=0A= * through the decoding routine below.=0A= */=0A= function unescape_xml_string(s) {=0A= return s.replace(/'/g, "'")=0A= .replace(/'/g, "'")=0A= .replace(/"/g, "\"")=0A= .replace(/"/g, "\"")=0A= .replace(/>/g, ">")=0A= .replace(/>/g, ">")=0A= .replace(/</g, "<")=0A= .replace(/</g, "<")=0A= .replace(/&/g, "&")=0A= .replace(/&/g, "&");=0A= }=0A= =0A= /*=0A= * Parse set of CSS rules and apply them to an element.=0A= * This is quite horrifying, but I'm unable to determine=0A= * how else to handle this with IE 6. FireFox and other=0A= * sane browsers let you simply set the style attribute=0A= * or use e.style.setProperty(rule, value, priority),=0A= * IE 6 appears to have neither of these capabilities..=0A= */=0A= function set_css_style(css, e, priority) {=0A= var rules =3D css.split(";");=0A= for (var i =3D 0; i < rules.length; i++) {=0A= var nvpair =3D rules[i].split(":");=0A= if (nvpair.length =3D=3D 2) {=0A= try {=0A= var name =3D nvpair[0]; /* style attribute */=0A= var value =3D nvpair[1]; /* attribute value */=0A= =0A= /*=0A= * For each possible style attribute, set the=0A= * appropriate style property in the element.=0A= */=0A= if (name =3D=3D "background") {=0A= e.style.background =3D value;=0A= }=0A= else if (name =3D=3D "background-attachment") {=0A= e.style.backgroundAttachment =3D value;=0A= }=0A= else if (name =3D=3D "background-color") {=0A= e.style.backgroundColor =3D value;=0A= }=0A= else if (name =3D=3D "background-image") {=0A= e.style.backgroundImage =3D value;=0A= }=0A= else if (name =3D=3D "background-position") {=0A= e.style.backgroundPosition =3D value;=0A= }=0A= else if (name =3D=3D "background-position-x") {=0A= e.style.backgroundPositionX =3D value;=0A= }=0A= else if (name =3D=3D "background-position-y") {=0A= e.style.backgroundPositionY =3D value;=0A= }=0A= else if (name =3D=3D "background-repeat") {=0A= e.style.backgroundRepeat =3D value;=0A= }=0A= else if (name =3D=3D "behavior") {=0A= e.style.behavior =3D value;=0A= }=0A= else if (name =3D=3D "border") {=0A= e.style.border =3D value;=0A= }=0A= else if (name =3D=3D "border-bottom") {=0A= e.style.borderBottom =3D value;=0A= }=0A= else if (name =3D=3D "border-bottom-color") {=0A= e.style.borderBottomColor =3D value;=0A= }=0A= else if (name =3D=3D "border-bottom-style") {=0A= e.style.borderBottomStyle =3D value;=0A= }=0A= else if (name =3D=3D "border-bottom-width") {=0A= e.style.borderBottomWidth =3D value;=0A= }=0A= else if (name =3D=3D "border-collapse") {=0A= e.style.borderCollapse =3D value;=0A= }=0A= else if (name =3D=3D "border-color") {=0A= e.style.borderColor =3D value;=0A= }=0A= else if (name =3D=3D "border-left") {=0A= e.style.borderLeft =3D value;=0A= }=0A= else if (name =3D=3D "border-left-color") {=0A= e.style.borderLeftColor =3D value;=0A= }=0A= else if (name =3D=3D "border-left-style") {=0A= e.style.borderLeftStyle =3D value;=0A= }=0A= else if (name =3D=3D "border-left-width") {=0A= e.style.borderLeftWidth =3D value;=0A= }=0A= else if (name =3D=3D "border-right") {=0A= e.style.borderRight =3D value;=0A= }=0A= else if (name =3D=3D "border-right-color") {=0A= e.style.borderRightColor =3D value;=0A= }=0A= else if (name =3D=3D "border-right-style") {=0A= e.style.borderRightStyle =3D value;=0A= }=0A= else if (name =3D=3D "border-right-width") {=0A= e.style.borderRightWidth =3D value;=0A= }=0A= else if (name =3D=3D "border-style") {=0A= e.style.borderStyle =3D value;=0A= }=0A= else if (name =3D=3D "border-top") {=0A= e.style.borderTop =3D value;=0A= }=0A= else if (name =3D=3D "border-top-color") {=0A= e.style.borderTopColor =3D value;=0A= }=0A= else if (name =3D=3D "border-top-style") {=0A= e.style.borderTopStyle =3D value;=0A= }=0A= else if (name =3D=3D "border-top-width") {=0A= e.style.borderTopWidth =3D value;=0A= }=0A= else if (name =3D=3D "border-width") {=0A= e.style.borderWidth =3D value;=0A= }=0A= else if (name =3D=3D "bottom") {=0A= e.style.bottom =3D value;=0A= }=0A= else if (name =3D=3D "clear") {=0A= e.style.clear =3D value;=0A= }=0A= else if (name =3D=3D "clip") {=0A= e.style.clip =3D value;=0A= }=0A= else if (name =3D=3D "color") {=0A= e.style.color =3D value;=0A= }=0A= else if (name =3D=3D "cssText") {=0A= e.style.Sets =3D value;=0A= }=0A= else if (name =3D=3D "cursor") {=0A= e.style.cursor =3D value;=0A= }=0A= else if (name =3D=3D "direction") {=0A= e.style.direction =3D value;=0A= }=0A= else if (name =3D=3D "display") {=0A= e.style.display =3D value;=0A= }=0A= else if (name =3D=3D "font") {=0A= e.style.font =3D value;=0A= }=0A= else if (name =3D=3D "font-family") {=0A= e.style.fontFamily =3D value;=0A= }=0A= else if (name =3D=3D "font-size") {=0A= e.style.fontSize =3D value;=0A= }=0A= else if (name =3D=3D "font-style") {=0A= e.style.fontStyle =3D value;=0A= }=0A= else if (name =3D=3D "font-variant") {=0A= e.style.fontVariant =3D value;=0A= }=0A= else if (name =3D=3D "font-weight") {=0A= e.style.fontWeight =3D value;=0A= }=0A= else if (name =3D=3D "height") {=0A= e.style.height =3D value;=0A= }=0A= else if (name =3D=3D "ime-mode") {=0A= e.style.imeMode =3D value;=0A= }=0A= else if (name =3D=3D "layout-flow") {=0A= e.style.layoutFlow =3D value;=0A= }=0A= else if (name =3D=3D "layout-grid") {=0A= e.style.layoutGrid =3D value;=0A= }=0A= else if (name =3D=3D "layout-grid-char") {=0A= e.style.layoutGridChar =3D value;=0A= }=0A= else if (name =3D=3D "layout-grid-line") {=0A= e.style.layoutGridLine =3D value;=0A= }=0A= else if (name =3D=3D "layout-grid-mode") {=0A= e.style.layoutGridMode =3D value;=0A= }=0A= else if (name =3D=3D "layout-grid-type") {=0A= e.style.layoutGridType =3D value;=0A= }=0A= else if (name =3D=3D "left") {=0A= e.style.left =3D value;=0A= }=0A= else if (name =3D=3D "letter-spacing") {=0A= e.style.letterSpacing =3D value;=0A= }=0A= else if (name =3D=3D "line-break") {=0A= e.style.lineBreak =3D value;=0A= }=0A= else if (name =3D=3D "line-height") {=0A= e.style.lineHeight =3D value;=0A= }=0A= else if (name =3D=3D "list-style") {=0A= e.style.listStyle =3D value;=0A= }=0A= else if (name =3D=3D "list-style-image") {=0A= e.style.listStyleImage =3D value;=0A= }=0A= else if (name =3D=3D "list-style-position") {=0A= e.style.listStylePosition =3D value;=0A= }=0A= else if (name =3D=3D "list-style-type") {=0A= e.style.listStyleType =3D value;=0A= }=0A= else if (name =3D=3D "margin") {=0A= e.style.margin =3D value;=0A= }=0A= else if (name =3D=3D "margin-bottom") {=0A= e.style.marginBottom =3D value;=0A= }=0A= else if (name =3D=3D "margin-left") {=0A= e.style.marginLeft =3D value;=0A= }=0A= else 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